Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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340 • QUÉBEC CITY

Church to tithe, or tax, were enshrined. Government was to be ap-

pointed, and the promise of an assembly, as given in the Proclama-

tion of 1763, was suspended. The use of French is not mentioned in

this act. The architect of the Québec Act was Guy Carleton, Lord

Dorchester.

QUÉBEC CITY. Québec—where the river narrows—was a First Na-

tions location at the time Samuel de Champlain chanced on it in

1608 and ordered the erection of the “Habitation,” a combined fort,

residence, and office on the north bank of the St. Lawrence River.

This was a seed to the European colonization of Canada, though it

was not the only such location of colonization.

By the time Champlain died (1635), the location had already once

been conquered by the English, the Kirke brothers, in 1629, and

returned to France at the peace of 1632. The Habitation was rebuilt,

and the fort and settlement of that day continues to be an important

location for archaeological work, though the location of Champlain’s

grave is not known. Archaeologists have found various artifacts of

the era as well as cannon platforms, and the surviving visual records

have guided the search. From the beginning, Québec was a military

post, for its situation and value was strategic. It depended for its

existence on local garrisons, ramparts, and cannon, and good rela-

tions with First Nations. It also depended on protection from the sea.

Though the location was ice locked in winter, spring breakup could

bring supplies from Atlantic communities or from metropolitan

France. By the same token, the river could be the way that enemies

(such as the Kirkes) could arrive. The history of Québec is very much

a military one.

The early French population consisted of soldiers and mariners,

merchants, farmers, and fur traders, especially the coureurs de bois

(runners of the woods) and the voyageurs, the canoe travelers who

did the heavy hauling of French empire in the interior. Religious

orders, male and female, soon made their appearance here, and after

1632 the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, held a monopoly of religious

activity in the colony and in the pays d’en haut, or high country (the

interior). The fur trade was the main current of trade and commerce,

and the agricultural activities based on the seigneurial system gave

support to the trade and diversity to the economy. In 1657, a Jesuit,

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QUÉBEC CITY • 341

Bishop Laval, established a seminary. In 1668, the King’s Daughters,

or filles du roi, arrived at Québec as prospective wives, in a plan de-

veloped by Jean-Baptiste Talon, the intendent (chief administrator),

and Laval.

In 1660, a crisis of defense occurred and the home government

introduced a new civil (as opposed to a commercial) administration,

establishing a royal colony, New France. The local administration

worked hard to win the alliance of the local Montagnais chiefs and

conceded a property at Sillery to them. When Champlain arrived,

the Huron-Wendat people numbered about 30,000 in the region.

Champlain formed a trade alliance with them and joined against

the Iroquois in subsequent wars. Disease eventually decimated the

Huron-Wendat, though pockets of them survive.

Québec has been the scene of many military incursions. In 1690,

New Englanders under William Phipps attacked and were repulsed.

In 1711, a Royal Navy expedition under Admiral Hovenden Walker

never made its destination, destroyed by navigational difficulties.

In 1759, the expedition of Major General James Wolfe and Vice

Admiral Charles Saunders captured Québec. France relinquished

sovereignty to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. In 1775,

American forces under Benedict Arnold attacked overland from

Maine but were repulsed. The major fortifications of Québec seen to-

day were built at the cost of the British taxpayer; they were designed

to protect this Canadian nodule of power against feared American

military incursion by land and sea in the years after the War of 1812.

Québec City had been severely damaged by British gunnery during

the Seven Years War (1756–63), and in the siege 535 houses were

burned and much of the lower town, including some ecclesiastical

places and establishments. The new government was headquartered

in the city, and was administered on military lines until the Consti-

tutional Act of 1791. The city remained the center of administration

and public assemblies down to the present time.

Québec City was the capital of Lower Canada, later Canada East,

and even later the Province of Québec. Québec City was also the na-

tional capital until the Union Act of 1840 robbed this ancient capital

of its national primacy, and Ottawa eventually supplanted it. In Oc-

tober 1864, representatives from Ontario, Québec, Prince Edward

Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland met here

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342 • QUÉBEC CITY

to discuss union of the colonies under a federal banner. The resulting

Québec Resolutions were an indication of colonial intentions. All

agreed to it, except Newfoundland. This was the basis of the first

Dominion of Canada of 1867.

Québec City is a world heritage jewel, having been designated

in 1985 as a UNESCO site. In 1870, Lord Dufferin, the governor

general of Canada, had requested that the fortifications of Québec

be preserved. The Citadel is one of the governor general’s seats or

residences. The Place-Royale restoration project was begun in 1966,

and other efforts were undertaken to revitalize the Old City, which

had suffered from commercialization and neglect. The Chateau

Frontenac (1893) and the Palais Station (1916) are two examples of

late 19th-century building that is central to the current architectural

treasures of the city. Another location of similar value is the Armor-

ies. Québec City is home to the Royal 22nd Regiment, the famed

“Van Doos,” whose memorial chapel is in the Citadel. The archi-

tect Eugéne-Etienne Taché undertook a French renaissance in the

19th century, recreating the era of Champlain. Premier Tascherau’s

Francophile provincial government of the 1920s and 1930s created

an urban planning commission and construction projects influenced

by the Beaux-Arts movement in Paris. In the 1960s, Jean Lessage’s

government launched the restoration project for the Historic District

of Old Québec.

Laval’s seminary grew into Laval University, one of the earliest

universities in the New World, a powerful seat of learning. In later

years, the University of Québec would establish a noteworthy institu-

tion. The city grew outward, especially to the west, and the railway

age and urban transportation helped the spread, including a railway

bridge across the St. Lawrence River. Steam navigation from Europe

to Montréal benefited Québec City as a port of call and as a customs

and immigration post. In 1908, a remarkable 300-year celebration

of Québec’s founding occurred here, marked by military displays,

a grand historical pageant, and a great naval parade and display. In

2008, the 400th anniversary was celebrated with less bravado and

more attention to architectural renovation and restoration—and the

continuity of the French fact in North America.

During World War II, Québec City was twice the location for

meetings between U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British

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RADIO • 343

Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Mackenzie King of Canada acted

as host. These summits were called Quadrant (1943) and Octagon

(1944). Québec’s population in 2009 was 493,000; with the metro-

politan area included, 785,000.

QUEENSTON HEIGHTS, BATTLE OF. Queenston Heights was

the site of a major event of the War of 1812, a battle around which

legends grew and national identity formed. On 13 October 1812,

the battle took place between American militia crossing the swift

and dangerous Niagara River at Queenston Heights and a combined

force of British regulars and Canadian militia. British general Isaac

Brock led the attack against the invading Americans and was killed.

Nevertheless, the British circled the American force and forced sur-

render. The battle was a significant victory for Canada as it prevented

American forces from occupying Canadian territory and gaining a

hold in the area.

– R –

RADIO. Stations started broadcasting in Canada in the 1920s. An im-

portant feature of Canadian radio from the outset was Canadian con-

tent in news and British content in the form of audio material supplied

by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The first station was

CFCF (formerly XWA) in Montréal, an English station, followed

by CKAC, also in Montréal, Canada’s first French-language radio

station. By 1923, there were 34 radio stations in Canada. In addition

to the dissemination of news and discussion of political, economic,

and social matters, they provided opportunity for Canadian musicians

and rapidly expanding jazz and popular music. In 1925, the Canadian

Performing Rights Society was established to administer public per-

formances and royalties for composers and lyricists. It later became

known as the Composers, Authors, and Publishers Association of

Canada (CPAC). Home radios became common in the 1930s.

Prominent in the administration and development of a self-

conscious Canadian broadcasting policy was Graham Spry, who

feared the deleterious influences of American radio. He knew of the

BBC model, but this would not suit the Canadian circumstances of

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344 • RAILWAYS

diversity. In 1932, the first Broadcasting Act was passed by Parlia-

ment to create the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).

American competition for the airwaves of Canada resulted in Canada

passing Canadian content legislation to help Canadian artists. In the

1950s, CHUM, in Toronto, began a long-running Top 40 chart.

In 1971, regulations came into force requiring AM stations to

devoted 30 percent of their musical selections to Canadian content.

It contributed to the development of a nascent Canadian pop star sys-

tem. Introduction in the mid-1970s of FM broadcasting stations made

possible extended performances beyond the standard three-minute

musical event. The Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunica-

tions Commission (CRTC) grew as the managing agent of private

radio on both bands, naturally having regulation also of television.

By 2000, Canadian content was increased to 35 percent. Licensing

arrangements of material used on stations allowed for a government-

regulated system of benefit to musicians whose work had been

broadcast. Levies on the purchase of music compact discs in Canada,

for instance, were designed to benefit performing musicians and

allied artists who had created or were creating music. Public radio

in Canada, by which is meant the CBC, whether in the English or

French service, has always tried to maintain a national center of

gravity as well as demonstrating regional and ethnic diversity. Less

well known, but significant, is its international coverage. See also

GZOWSKI, PETER.

RAILWAYS. See TRANSPORTATION.

REBELLIONS OF 1837. In Lower Canada and Upper Canada,

rebellions occurred that are integral to the process called the fight for

responsible government. The causes were different for the two col-

onies or provinces, they but had significant effects—and long after

the fact, they advanced the causes of colonial self-government. After

1791, each of the colonies was ruled by a governor and executive

council, and each had a legislative assembly whose political power

was severely constrained by virtue of executive power.

The Lower Canada assembly was dominated by middle-class,

nationally conscious French Catholics who were largely excluded

from policy-making, for the governor and executive council were

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REBELLIONS OF 1837 • 345

controlled by English-speaking persons or French who were in part-

nership with this oligarchy. Reform-minded champions for democra-

tization, with ties to the press, called for protection of French rights

against English dominance. These same persons called for the reform

of government, for what became known as responsible government:

the legislative assembly would control policy, and the executive

would be responsible to the legislative arm.

In Lower Canada, the executive was dominated by the Château

Clique, an unflattering reference to those close to the governor’s

residence. This urban group had powerful influence in political ap-

pointments, crown land grants, banking, business, public works

contracts, and education. Against this Tory, or Blue, group stood the

reformers, particularly Louis-Joseph Papineau, eloquent leader of

the Patriote Party (1826) in the Legislative Assembly. In 1834, a list

of grievances, the Ninety-two Resolutions, was issued. A key issue

was control over the provincial civil service and, related to this, the

right to determine how revenues raised in the colony were spent.

In the 1830s, there were economic depression, agricultural failure,

cholera, and an electoral riot. These fueled dissension. The governor

held firm against this rising tide of resentment. In 1837, Papineau

and the Patriotes led an armed rebellion. It began as a street fight in

Montréal. On 23 November, a small British Army force attacked

poorly armed and trained Patriotes (led by Wolfred Nelson) at St.

Denis, Richelieu River, but after an attack of five hours was obliged

to withdraw. On 25 November, at St. Charles, south of St. Denis,

the Patriotes were defeated by British regulars, giving them control

of the Richelieu River valley. Papineau fled to the United States. In

December, a fierce battle was fought at St. Eustache, northwest of

Montréal. British forces (1,200 regulars under Sir John Colborne)

attacked the Patriotes headed by Amury Girod and Jean-Olivier

Chénier, and the rebellion was put down. Chénier and 70 Patriotes

were killed; 118 were taken prisoner. The rebellion disrupted trade,

caused widespread migration to the United States, and indicated to

the British government that reform ought to be taken seriously. In

consequence, Lord Durham was sent out as governor general and

special commissioner to investigate the causes of the rebellion and

was charged with making recommendations to the British govern-

ment.

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346 • REBELLIONS OF 1837

The second phase of rebellion came after Durham’s departure from

Canada in early November 1838. There were incidents at Napierville

and Odelletown. Rebels were captured at Caughnawaga by the Iro-

quois allied to the British. At Beauharnois, the Patriotes won the day

but then were scattered; 108 rebels were convicted by courts-martial,

and of 99 condemned to death, 12 went to the gallows and 58 were

transported to Bermuda and Australian colonies. The six battles of

the two campaigns left 325 dead, 27 of whom were soldiers and the

rest rebels. For a time, therefore, the power of the oligarchy was

reinforced and the reform processes curtailed. The English-French

division continued unabated.

In Upper Canada, the issues were related to denominational and

urban-rural differences. Upper Canada’s founding had been on

Anglican expectations, and one-seventh of all crown lands, known

as “clergy reserves,” were set aside for what was expected to be an

established church. The politics, institutions, and administration of

Upper Canada were run by the elite clique known as the Family

Compact. Rule was by patronage. In the 1820s, Methodists com-

plained of their disadvantages, and particularly control of the clergy

reserves. By the mid-1830s, William Lyon Mackenzie, publisher

of the Colonial Advocate, was championing radical reform. In 1835,

he published his Seventh Report on Grievances, which listed the de-

mands of the extreme Reformers. One such was that the Legislative

Council be elected (and not chosen by the governor).

In 1836, the new lieutenant governor, Francis Bond Head, dis-

solved the Legislative Assembly on grounds that it would not vote

funds for government monies. Bond Head actually led the Tory party

to victory in the general election that followed. Mackenzie continued

to promote rebellion and was encouraged by Patriote activities. He

advocated American democratic institutions instead of British mod-

erate changes. On 7 December, Bond Head sent a 1,500 strong York

militia against 300 or 400 mustering rebels at Montgomery’s Tavern.

Heading south on Yonge Street, it routed a mob of rebels. Many of

the protesters came from the Home District north of Toronto and

represented the agrarian sector of the populace from which Mack-

enzie drew his strength. Mackenzie promptly fled to Navy Island,

Niagara River, in the United States, and there proclaimed a Canadian

republic in exile. He was arrested by American authorities and briefly

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RED RIVER REBELLION • 347

imprisoned. He was later granted amnesty by Canadian officials and

after 13 years in exile returned to Toronto in 1849. He was reelected

to the Assembly.

Meanwhile, at Brantford, 500 rebels under Charles Duncombe

were dispersed by a force under Allan Macnab. Other rural distur-

bances fizzled out. Many of the rebels were aided in the United

States by Hunters Lodges, and in 1838 these groups were engaged

in actions against Pelee Island, Lake Erie; Prescott (Battle of the

Windmill) on the St. Lawrence River; and Windsor. These raids

were poorly arranged and were unsuccessful, but they made the

Canadian-American border a place of turbulence during those years

and immediately after. See also BIDWELL, MARSHALL SPRING.

RECIPROCITY. A concept and movement begun in British North

American colonies to facilitate trade with the United States along

free trade lines. Reciprocity called for bilateral reduction of tariffs.

In 1854, the governor general, Lord Elgin, negotiated the Reciproc-

ity Treaty with the United States, the commercial results bringing

unrivaled prosperity. In 1866, Washington abrogated the arrange-

ment. Sir John A. Macdonald’s national policy and tariff were

designed to provide protection for the Canadian economy and build

up a manufacturing base. Reciprocity was encouraged by the Liberal

Party and argued strongly by them in the 1911 election (which they

lost because of it). Free trade, however, returned in 1989 under the

Progressive Conservatives and expanded to embrace Mexico and

the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994.

RED RIVER REBELLION. An 1869–70 uprising by the Métis Na-

tional Committee, of which Louis Riel was secretary, the rebellion

strove against what was seen as an unauthorized Canadian takeover

of Assiniboia and Manitoba upon the demise of the Hudson’s Bay

Company (HBC) as a landholding power. The rebellion was caused

by Canadian blunders, specifically failure to advise the Métis and

other residents of Assiniboia of the change in status from HBC to

Canadian sovereignty.

Lt.-Gov. William McDougall was prevented from entering

Red River. The Métis declared martial law and tried and executed

Thomas Scott, an Ontario member of the Orange Order. This

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348 • REFORM PARTY OF CANADA

sparked a Canadian official response. A Canadian armed force was

sent in aid to the civil power. Meanwhile, Riel, leading a provisional

government, issued a “Declaration of the People of Rupert’s Land

and the North West.” John A. Macdonald, the prime minister, sent

Donald Smith (later Lord Strathcona) to negotiate. Eventually Riel’s

government fixed on some demands for Manitoba’s provincial status.

Canada then passed the Manitoba Act, creating a new province in

1871. Riel was elected as MP but was denied taking his seat in Parlia-

ment, and he went into temporary exile in the United States.

REFORM PARTY OF CANADA. Founded in 1987 by Preston Man-

ning, the Reform Party had as one of its central tenets grassroots pop-

ulism and was interested in promoting changes to Canada’s system of

representative democracy. Party policies included potential recall of

parliamentarians, “recall rules,” and citizens initiatives. Manning was

an Alberta member of Parliament. In 1997, upon the federal elec-

tion, he became official leader of the opposition. The Reform Party

subsequently became the Alliance Party and later merged with the

Progressive Conservative Party to form the Conservative Party

of Canada. See also PROGRESSIVE PARTY.

REFUGEES. Canada resettled a quarter of a million refugees in the

years 1947 to 1967, 95 percent of whom were from Eastern Europe.

In November 1946, Prime Minister Mackenzie King announced

emergency measures to bring some refugees and displaced persons

in camps from Europe. In 1956–57, Canada received 37,500 Hungar-

ians fleeing Soviet repression, and in 1968, 8,800 from Czechoslova-

kia for similar reasons. In the 1970s, refugees came from Uganda (af-

ter the 1972 expulsion of Asians), Chile (after the 1973 coup d’état),

Vietnam (after the fall of Saigon in 1975), and Lebanon (after the

civil war in 1975). Since 1979, refugees have been accepted under

humanitarian immigration policies if designated political prisoners

or oppressed persons. Poland, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, El Sal-

vador, Guatemala, Iraq, Iran, nations of the former Yugoslavia, and

Afghanistan are examples of the source countries of such refugees.

Regina. The capital and commercial center of Saskatchewan, Re-

gina is 160 kilometers north of the U.S. border and is set in a wide al-

luvial plain. The city is named for Queen Victoria (Victoria Regina).

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REPRESENTATION BY POPULATION • 349

Founded in 1882 as a creature of the Canadian Pacific Railway and

made capital of the Northwest Territories in 1883, it was at the

same time selected by the North West Mounted Police as its western

headquarters and training depot. Growth was slow, with only 2,250

citizens in 1901. Steady growth came thereafter with immigration,

trains, and the growth of farming. Regina was named capital of the

Province of Saskatchewan in 1905. By 1911, there were more than

30,000 citizens. The city suffered setbacks, including a tornado in

1912 and a depression in 1914. Further, the outbreak of World War

I halted the city’s growth. Then came other difficulties: the Great De-

pression and then the cruel drought that set back agriculture. Only

in 1939, with the coming of World War II, did Regina’s economy

revive. Steady growth followed, especially in the 1980s and first

decade of the 21st century.

The city played an important role in the history of Canadian pro-

tests, and the Regina Manifesto that gave birth to the Cooperative

Commonwealth Federation (New Democratic Party) in 1933 was

proclaimed here. The 1935 “On to Ottawa Trek” of 1,000 unem-

ployed and disaffected men, protesting conditions in federal work

camps, ended its eastwards progress here in an event known as the

Regina Riot.

Wascana Lake is the heart of the city, and nearby stands the

beautiful legislative buildings. Nearby, too, are the Art Gallery,

Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Saskatchewan Center of the Arts, and

Saskatchewan Science Center. Regina’s market square consists of

24 blocks of downtown. The city has a large number of aboriginal

peoples (Indians and Métis). Surrounded by rich wheat lands, Re-

gina is headquarters for the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool, the world’s

largest grain-handling cooperative. It also boasts a steel mill and oil

processing facilities. Among the institutions of higher education are

the University of Regina, Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science

and Technology, and Saskatchewan Federated College. The Sas-

katchewan Roughriders play in the Canadian Football League. The

population is about 208,000.

REPRESENTATION BY POPULATION. The British North Amer-

ica Act, or Constitution Act of 1867, accorded 65 seats in the House

of Commons to the Province of Québec and assigned seats to the

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