McBride W.M. Technological change and the United States Navy, 1865-1945
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Alex Roland’s Underwater Warfare in the Age of Sail (1978); Jon Tetsuro Sumida’s
In Defence of Naval Supremacy: Finance, Technology, and British Naval Policy,
1889–1914 (1989); Elting Morison’s Men, Machines, and Modern Times (1966);
Monte A. Calvert’s The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830–1910: Professional
Cultures in Conflict (1967); Edward William Sloan III’s Benjamin Franklin Isher-
wood, Naval Engineer: The Years as Engineer in Chief, 1861–1869 (1965); Lance C.
Buhl’s “Mariners and Machines: Resistance to Technological Change in the
American Navy, 1865–1869,” Journal of American History (1974); and Kenneth P.
Werrell’s The Evolution of the Modern Cruise Missile (1985) and his “The Weapon
the Military Did Not Want: The Modern Strategic Cruise Missile,” Journal of Mil-
itary History (1989).
Other applications of paradigmatic analysis in military history include Andrew
F. Krepinevich Jr.’s The Army and Vietnam (1986) and Tim Travers’s The Killing
Ground: The British Army, The Western Front and the Emergence of Modern War-
fare, 1900–1918 (1987).
Note on Sources
324
Index
ABCD ships, 19
Aeronautics, Bureau of
creation, 136
post-1945 importance, 219
Aeronautics, Office of, 128
aircraft carrier
adjunct to battleship, 127–28
commanded by aviators, 152
converted battlecruisers, 141, 152
CVX, 231
design debate (interwar), 193
military limitations (interwar), 184–85
resistance to large carriers, 194–95
scouting mission rivals cruisers, 127
supercarriers, 217
vulnerability to attack, 153
airships
Akron
crash, 188
fleet exercises, 187
cancellation
chief, Bureau of Aeronautics, 189
CNO recommendation, 190
House of Representatives, 189
civilian airships for naval use, 191
commissioned ships, 186
General Board, 188–89
intraspecific weapon, 190–91
Macon
crash, 189
impressed Franklin Roosevelt, 188
Ohio congressional interest, 191–92
redesign recommended, 190
all-big-gun ship, 68–69
amalgamation of line and engineer offi-
cers, 20, 32–35
naval officers’ views, 33–35
and statements by George W.
Melville, 32–33
and Theodore Roosevelt, 32
American Federation of Labor (AFL),
177
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 65
Annapolis Post Graduate School, 29–32
antiship guided missiles
development, 214
limitations on capabilities, 217
armor-belt controversy (1907), 78–84
arsenal ship, 232
aviation, naval
deputy chief of naval operations for,
219
fleet defense, 153
fleet exercises, 155, 197
hierarchy, 218
line officer control, 133
aviation, naval (continued)
paradigmatic “normal” mission, 197
separate naval air service, 145
supported Monroe Doctrine, 127
tactical missions (1930s), 197
aviation presumptive anomaly, 182
aviation technological paradigm
antisubmarine warfare during cold
war, 215
managing presumptive anomalies, 220
post-1945 refinement, 213
“strike-at-source” antisubmarine war-
fare, 218
supercarriers, 217
suppression of surface-to-surface
guided missiles, 217
aviation thought style
expressed by Moffett, 148
and individual warriors, 226–27
interwar, 111
minimized nuclear weapons, 219
aviators, naval
command of aircraft carriers, 152
high command after WWII, 209
masters of complex artifacts, 226
officer “class,” 136
promotion during WWII, 208
technology-defined hierarchy, 218
“Basic Naval Policy of the U.S.,” 160
battlecruiser
Benson defended, 118
Bureau of Construction & Repair sup-
ported, 116
construction suspended, 118
conversion to aircraft carriers, 141, 152
General Board recommended con-
struction, 114
Japanese program, 115
Jutland, 117
mission, 114
U.S. reevaluation after Jutland, 117
battleship
economic boost for economy, 44
effective antiaircraft, 145
evolutionary versus submarine, 120
fast task forces, 200–201
fortress mentality in design, 67
Iowa (authorized 1892), 43
Iowa (in service in 1944), 185
Kearsarge /Kentucky, 49, 52, 61
Montana, 185
North Carolina, 179, 180
North Dakota, 81–87, 95
popular opposition, 40
sea-going coastline, 38
Spanish-American War and construc-
tion, 39, 46
superior to aerial bombing, 146
supremacy challenged in Britain, 139
use limited early in Pacific War, 203
battleship strategic philosophy, 20, 38
battleship technological paradigm, 201
Benjamin, Park, 76–77
Bennington explosion, 33
Bieg, Valentine N., 121–22
Bijker, Wiebe, 234–36
Bismarck, 201, 241
Board of Navy Commissioners, 11
Board on Construction
Connecticut controversy, 48, 50–51
established, 48
supported smaller battleships, 60
bombing trials
1921 army-navy, 142
radio-controlled battleships, 145
Bowles, Francis T., 51, 54
Bureau of Aeronautics. See Aeronautics,
Bureau of
Bureau of Construction & Repair. See
Index
326
Construction & Repair, Bureau
of
bureau system, 20
bushido¯,172
Callon, Michel, 36, 235
Camden, N.J. lobbying, 177–79
Capps, Washington L., 59, 79–81, 84–
85, 87
Carter administration’s naval strategy, 223
castles of steel, 67, 211, 241
Chandler, William E.
1882 line-engineer controversy, 22–23
opposition to battleships, 43
chief of naval operations (CNO)
canceled submarine funding, 151
criticized Carter administration, 223
defended battlecruiser, 117–18
defended United States, 210
supported battleship, 239
supported CVX, 231
CNO Planning Division, 134
Committee for Industrial Organization
(CIO), 177
Cone, Hutch I., 99
Connecticut-class battleships
design review, 48
General Board involvement, 49
secondary battery controversy, 49
torpedo tube controversy, 54–57
Constant, Edward, 6, 233
Construction & Repair, Bureau of
advocated battlecruisers, 116
civilian naval architecture, 25
studied World War, 121
supported coastal submarines, 121
Construction Corps
importance, 36–37
size, 36–37
training for, 24–29
Converse, George, 79
Cook, A.B.
aviation gunnery support, 197
opposed replacement airship, 189
Coolidge, Calvin, 152, 160
Cost
acquisition, 221
life-cycle, 221
scouting Japan, 149
ship nuclear propulsion, 221
counterweapon, 8
cruise missile
presumptive anomaly, 228
used in
Afghanistan, 231
former Yugoslavia, 230–31
Persian Gulf War, 229–30
Sudan, 221
Curtis, Charles G.
deterioration of nozzles, 95
marine turbine contracts, 105
reaction steam turbine, 94
CVX, 231
Daniels, Josephus, 118
Daubin, F.A., 124
Demologos, 10
Denfeld, Louis, 210
Dewey, George
General Board and technology selec-
tion, 58
opposed graduate education, 29
president of General Board, 47
proposed Board on Designs, 60, 62
Dreadnought
armor belt, 80
designed, 70
interim design, 70–71
Durand, William F.
redesign of airships, 190
Index
327
Durand, William F. (continued)
testimony before Special Policy Board,
144
Emmet, William Le Roy
electric generating stations, 94
turboelectric drive, 97–102
Engineer Corps, 16
Evans, Robley “Fighting Bob,” 82
Farragut, David, 9
Fisher, Admiral Jackie, 69–70
Fiske, Bradley A.
advocated bureau of aeronautics, 133
aviation advocacy, 133–35
“compromiseless” battleship, 71
institutional framework for invention,
92–93
rebuttal of Mahan, 72
torpedo plane patent, 130
Five-Power Treaty, 140–41
Fleck, Ludwig, 111
Fletcher, Frank F., 119–20
Forrestal, James, 206
Föttinger transformer, 97
Fox, Gustavus, 14
Fullam, William, 150–51
Fulton, Robert, 10
General Board of the Navy
aircraft in the Pacific, 131–32
“Basic Naval Policy of the U.S.,” 160
creation, 47
Hoover and, 161–62
opposed engineering graduate school,
29
separate airplane carrier, 131
Special Policy Board, 139
statutory recognition, 58–59
task force concept, 199–200
General Electric Company, 91, 94–95
General Order No. 49, 81
Geneva Conference (1927), 160
graduate engineering education, 30–31
guerre de course, 5
reaffirmed after Key West, 18
submarines during WWII, 113
guerre d’escadre,5
guided missiles
research and development funds, 214
surface-to-air, 217
surface-to-surface, 217
gun power, American interest in, 66
Hale, Eugene
battleship legislation, 43
opposed larger battleships, 79
Harding, Warren G., 140
Herbert, Hilary A., 44
Hill, Frank K., 56
Hobson, Richmond P., 25–26
Holley, I.B., 240
homogenized officer corps, 21
Hoover, Herbert
and General Board, 162
limit to U.S. power, 161
strategic vision, 158
technical yardstick, 161–62
Howell Board on naval architecture,
26–27
Hughes, Thomas P., 234
intra-artifact combat, 153
ironcladding, 10
Isherwood, Benjamin F.
focus of line officer hatred, 17
Wampanoag, 17–18, 112
Japan
battlecruisers, 112, 115
concerns over NIRA ships, 172, 181
interceptive operations (yo¯geki
sakusen), 172
Index
328
naval officers views of treaties, 171–72
notice to abrogate treaties, 172
racial stereotyping, 201
superbattleship (see Yamato)
turboelectric drive, 107–8
Johnson, Jay L., 239–41
Jutland, 117
Karsten, Peter, 19, 41
Kato¯, Kanji, 172
Kearsarge / Kentucky, 49, 61
Key, Frank, 85–88
Key West maneuvers, 18
King, Ernest J.
opinion on high command, 206–8
promotion of admirals, 208
task force report, 199–200
victory from flexible sea power, 185
Yarnell report opinion, 207–8
labor
AFL-CIO rivalry, 177
Walsh-Healey Act, 176
Law, John, 235
Leahy, William D.
argues against airships, 190–91
defends battleship’s supremacy, 239
Lehman, John F.
Maritime Strategy, 223–24
pushed, 600-ship navy,225
supported supercarriers, 223
Lexington, 125, 141, 146
light cruisers, 149
line-engineer conflict, 13
Line Officers Association, 19
Liscome Bay, 184
littoral warfare, 227–28
London Naval Conference of 1930
agenda items, 162
details of agreement, 163
Hoover and Macdonald, 162
London Naval Conference of 1935, 175–
76
London Naval Treaty of 1930, 163–64
London Naval Treaty of 1936, 175–76
Long, John D., 27
Luce, Stephen B., 41
Mahan, Alfred Thayer
battleship guerre d’escadre, 40–41
decried technological competition, 74
derided naval engineers, 13
influence, 38
Russo-Japanese War
article in Collier’s Weekly, 72
article in U.S. Naval Institute Pro-
ceedings, 72–75
Martini, Francesco di Giorgio, 67
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
course XIII-A established,28
marine engineering course, 31
navy interest in, 25
Mayo, Henry T., 132, 154
McCain, John S., 208
McKinley, William, 46
McNair, Frederick V., 27–28
mechanical reduction gear, 96
Melville, George W.
amalgamation, 32–35
German model of technological de-
velopment, 92
technical graduate education, 29
Michigan, 68–69
military expenditures and public welfare,
158
Moffett, William A.
killed in Akron crash, 188
navy as first line of defense, 142
officer class as aviators, 136
support for airships, 186–87
testimony before Special Policy Board,
148
Index
329
Monroe Doctrine and naval aviation, 127
Montana class, 185
Moody, William H., 58, 63
Morrow Board, 152, 170
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)
abdication of congressional oversight,
169
aviation funding, 170
criticism of naval use, 168–69
shipbuilding funds and wages, 167
used for warship construction, 168
National Recovery Administration, 176
Naval Academy
cadet engineering course, 21
course in steam engineering, 14
source of post-1945 aviators, 206
steam engineering department, 15
naval architecture education, 24–25
naval aviation presumptive anomaly,
182
naval aviation thought style (post-1945),
218
naval aviators. See aviators, naval
Naval Consulting Board, 93
Naval Flying Corps, 129
naval general staff, 47
navalists, Mahanian, 49
naval research establishment, 92–93
Naval War College
interwar strategic orthodoxy, 195–96
primacy of the gun, 198
network approach to change, 234–35
Newberry, Truman, 86–87
New Deal dynamics, 179–81
new left historiography, 158
new line, 35
Newport Conference, 85–87
Niblack, A.P., 54–55
Nimitz, Chester W.
battleship mission (1946), 209
command, 183–84
supported surface officers’ command,
184
“normal” war, 201–2
North Carolina, 176–78
North Dakota, 81–87, 95
nuclear strategy, 213, 215
O’Connell, Robert, 8
operational commands, 199
Pacific Ocean
light cruisers, 149
suitability for aviation, 131–32
technological requirements, 66,
89– 90
paddlewheel, 12
paradigm
aviation technological (see aviation
technological paradigm)
normal, interwar, 148
strategic, 5
technological, 5
Parsons, Sir Charles, 93–94
pay disparity, constructors and line offi-
cers, 35
Pearl Harbor
false paradigm demarcation, 237
presumptive anomaly, 203
vulnerability to air attack, 197
Perry, Matthew C., 11
personnel reduction (1882), 22
Porter, David, 10
Porter, David Dixon, 16–18, 74
Poundstone, Homer, 66
presumptive anomaly, 6, 182, 223–24
Project 60, 221
public works. See National Industrial Re-
covery Act
Index
330
racial stereotyping, 201
Rae, Charles W., 59
Ramsay, F. M., 23
reciprocating steam engines, 91
Report on Aviation. See Yarnell,
Harry E.
Reuterdahl, Henry, 78
reverse technological salient, 95–97
Reynolds, Clark G., 184
Rickover, Hyman G., 220
Robison, Samuel S., 152
Roland, Alex, 41
Roosevelt, Franklin D.
Admiral Standley’s opinion of, 165
aviation as public works, 170
meddling in naval affairs, 165
navalist, 164
new battleship plans (1935), 174
response to critics of naval funding,
169
selection of Swanson, 165
strategic vision, 158
warships as public works, 168
Roosevelt, Theodore
agitates for naval expansion, 46
assistant secretary of the navy, 20
halts investigation of Sims, 79
importance of naval expansion, 64
line-engineer amalgamation, 20
Personnel Board, 32
role of naval power, 64
Spanish-American War, 46
Russo-Japanese War, 69–75
Samoa Crisis of 1889, 42
Saratoga, 125, 141, 146
SBD Dauntless, 155
Scientific American, 104
Sellers, David F., 188
Sims, William S.
armor belt criticism, 78
attacked technical bureaus, 51–59
countered Mahan, 75–76
criticized Kentucky, 49
dreadnoughts after Russo-Japanese
War, 75–76
French model of warship design, 51–
52, 54
indicted battleships in McClure’s
Weekly, 78
Newport Conference, 85–86
president, Naval War College, 135
Senate investigation, 79–84
supported all-big-gun ship, 76
supported large battleships, 76–77
Smith, Merritt Roe, 236
social constructivists,234
South Carolina, 68–69
Soviet navy
bastions, 224
Okean, 221
Okean, 75, 223
wartime mission, 224
Spanish-American War, 38–39, 46
Spear, Lawrence, 27
Special Policy Board Hearings (1924)
aviation experts’ testimony, 144
origin, 143
technological ceiling, 144
torpedoes ignored, 148
U.S. Navy’s strategic missions, 143–44
Standley, William H., 165
steam turbine
efficiency problems, 96
rationale for Dreadnought, 108
reduced propulsion volume, 90
strategic litmus test, 106
strategies
national, 224
service, 224
Index
331
strike-at-source antisubmarine warfare, 218
submarine
acoustic detection devices, 126
CNO advocated smaller battleships, 123
for coastal defense, 121
early cold war mission, 214
effectiveness dismissed, 119–20
General Board’s assessment (WWI),
121
ignored at Naval War College, 126
mobile minefields, 125
naval hierarchy’s opinion, 122
1914 submarine exercise, 122–23
presumptive anomaly to aircraft car-
rier, 225–26
subordinate strategic mission, 124
supported interwar battleship-based
strategy, 198
Sumida Jon T., 70–71
Swanson, Claude, 165, 167, 169
systems approach to technological
change, 234
Taranto, 201
task force
Admiral King’s task force report, 199–
200
aircraft carriers independent, 200
congressional debate (1940), 199
development of task force (late 1930s),
183
disapproved by secretary of the navy
(1937), 199
fast battleships and aircraft carriers,
200–210
Taylor, David W.
battleship’s supremacy, 139–40
supports Bureau of Aeronautics, 133
turboelectric drive, 103–4
technological divergence, 8
technological exploration, 111
technologically discontinuous warfare, 9
technological paradigm, 5
technological skepticism in militaries, 8
technological trajectory, 233
within battleship paradigm, 89
within naval aviation paradigm, 220–
21
technology-defined thought collectives,
111
thought collective, 6
thought style, 6
torpedo controversy, Connecticut-class,
54–57
torpedo plane
Fiske called for development, 130
limitations (1930s), 155
Towers, John H.
criticizes cautious black shoes, 184
indicted black shoe command, 204–
205
Pacific Fleet command, 209
trace italienne, 211, 220
Tracy, Benjamin Franklin, 41–42
Travers, Tim, 226–27
“treaty” navy, 159
turboelectric drive, 97
in battlecruisers, 103
collier trials, 100
German interest, 107
Italy considered, 107
Japan acquired, 107
1916 Program, 102
rejected by Board on Construction,
97–98
Scientific American opposed, 104
Senate hearings, 104
trial in Jupiter, 101
Turner, Richmond K., 195
type command, 199
Index
332
ULQ-6, 1–2, 211
uncrewed combat aerial vehicle
(UCAV), 228
unstable dynamics, New Deal, 179–81
U.S. Fleet organization in forces, 144
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings estab-
lished, 67
U.S. Navy
DCNOs abolished, 239
history ignored, 241
N8 established, 239
socio-technical frame in the navy, 236
Vinson, Carl, 166–67, 170
Vinson-Trammel Act (1934), 171
Virginius Affair, 18
Walker Board, 80
Walsh-Healey Act, 176
Wampanoag, 17, 112
Washington Naval Conference, 140
Washington tests, 147
Welles, Gideon, 14
Westinghouse, George, 96, 101
Westinghouse Electric Manufacturing
Company, 103
Westinghouse Machine Company, 97,
101
Works Progress Administration (WPA),
171
Yamato, 173, 175–76
Yarnell, Harry E.
advocated bravery against submarines,
123–24
Report on Aviation, 205–7
yo¯geki sakusen, 172
Zumwalt, Elmo R., 221
“High-low” technology mix, 221
Project, 60, 221
sea-control ship, 222
Index
333