Nelson V. Wind Energy. Renewable Energy and the Environment
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
WIND
ENERGY
Renewable Energy
and
the
Environment
Vaughn Nelson
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Boca Raton London New York
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
WIND
ENERGY
Renewable Energy
and
the
Environment
Vaughn Nelson
CRC Press
Taylor
Si
Francis Group
Boca Raton London NewYork
CRC Press
is
an imprint
of the
Taylor
&
Francis Group,
an
informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nelson, Vaughn.
Wind energy : renewable energy and the environment / Vaughn Nelson.
p. cm. -- (Energy and the Environment)
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7568-7 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Wind power. 2. Wind power plants. I. Title. II. Series.
TJ820.N44 2009
621.31’2136--dc22 2009000877
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
v
Contents
Series Preface .................................................................................................................................xi
The Series Editor .......................................................................................................................... xv
Preface..........................................................................................................................................xvii
The Author....................................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 History................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Dutch Windmill.....................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Farm Windmill ......................................................................................................2
1.1.3 Wind Chargers.......................................................................................................4
1.1.4 Generation of Electricity for Utilities ...................................................................5
1.2 Wind Farms .......................................................................................................................10
1.3 Small Systems ...................................................................................................................11
Links............................................................................................................................................ 11
References...................................................................................................................................11
Chapter 2
Energy ............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Philosophy......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Advantages/Disadvantages of Renewable Energy ..............................................13
2.1.2 Economics...........................................................................................................13
2.2 Denition of Energy and Power........................................................................................14
2.3 Fundamentals Concerning Energy ....................................................................................15
2.4 Energy Dilemma in Light of the Laws of Thermodynamics.............................................16
2.4.1 Conservation........................................................................................................16
2.4.2 Efciency ............................................................................................................16
2.5 Exponential Growth ..........................................................................................................18
2.6 Use of Fossil Fuels............................................................................................................21
2.6.1 Oil and Natural Gas............................................................................................. 21
2.6.2 Coal .....................................................................................................................23
2.7 Nuclear ..............................................................................................................................24
2.8 Mathematics of Exponential Growth ................................................................................25
2.8.1 Doubling Time ....................................................................................................25
2.8.2 Resource Consumption .......................................................................................25
2.9 Lifetime of a Finite Resource............................................................................................ 26
2.10 Summary ...........................................................................................................................27
Links............................................................................................................................................ 28
References...................................................................................................................................28
General ........................................................................................................................................29
Questions/Activities ....................................................................................................................29
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vi Contents
Order of Magnitude Estimates ....................................................................................................30
Problems...................................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 3
Wind Characteristics..................................................................................................................... 33
3.1 Global Circulation.............................................................................................................33
3.2 Extractable Limits of Wind Power....................................................................................33
3.3 Power in the Wind.............................................................................................................35
3.4 Wind Shear........................................................................................................................37
3.5 Wind Direction..................................................................................................................41
3.6 Wind Power Potential........................................................................................................41
3.7 Turbulence.........................................................................................................................43
3.8 Wind Speed Histograms.................................................................................................... 44
3.9 Duration Curve.................................................................................................................. 45
3.10 Variations in Wind Power Potential ..................................................................................46
3.11 Wind Speed Distributions ................................................................................................. 48
3.12 General Comments............................................................................................................49
Links............................................................................................................................................ 49
References...................................................................................................................................49
Questions/Activities ....................................................................................................................50
Problems...................................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 4
Wind Resource ............................................................................................................................... 53
4.1 United States .....................................................................................................................54
4.2 European Union ................................................................................................................ 57
4.3 Other Countries .................................................................................................................58
4.4 Ocean Winds .....................................................................................................................59
4.4.1 Texas Gulf Coast .................................................................................................61
4.4.2 World................................................................................................................... 61
4.5 Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 61
4.5.1 Cup and Propeller Anemometers ........................................................................63
4.5.2 Wind Direction....................................................................................................65
4.5.3 Instrument Characteristics...................................................................................66
4.5.4 Measurement.......................................................................................................66
4.5.5 Vegetation Indicators...........................................................................................67
4.6 Data Loggers .....................................................................................................................70
4.7 Wind Measurement for Small Wind Turbines...................................................................71
Links............................................................................................................................................ 71
Maps..................................................................................................................................71
Ocean Winds .....................................................................................................................71
References...................................................................................................................................72
Problems...................................................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 5
Wind Turbines................................................................................................................................75
5.1 Drag Device.......................................................................................................................75
5.2 Lift Device.........................................................................................................................75
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Contents vii
5.3 Orientation of the Rotor Axis............................................................................................ 78
5.4 Description of the System .................................................................................................80
5.5 Aerodynamics ................................................................................................................... 81
5.6 Control...............................................................................................................................84
5.6.1 Normal Operation................................................................................................85
5.6.2 Faults...................................................................................................................86
5.7 Energy Production............................................................................................................. 86
5.7.1 Generator Size..................................................................................................... 86
5.7.2 Rotor Area and Wind Map ..................................................................................87
5.7.3 Manufacturer’s Curve..........................................................................................88
5.8 Calculated Annual Energy.................................................................................................88
5.9 Innovative Wind Systems ..................................................................................................89
5.10 Applications ......................................................................................................................95
5.10.1 Electrical Energy................................................................................................. 95
5.10.2 Mechanical Energy..............................................................................................96
5.10.3 Thermal Energy................................................................................................... 96
5.10.4 Wind Hybrid Systems ......................................................................................... 96
5.10.5 Summary .............................................................................................................97
5.11 Storage...............................................................................................................................97
Links............................................................................................................................................ 97
References...................................................................................................................................97
Problems...................................................................................................................................... 98
Chapter 6
Design of Wind Turbines............................................................................................................. 101
6.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................101
6.2 Aerodynamics ................................................................................................................. 101
6.3 Mathematical Terms........................................................................................................102
6.4 Drag Device.....................................................................................................................103
6.5 Lift Device.......................................................................................................................104
6.5.1 Maximum Theoretical Power............................................................................107
6.5.2 Rotation.............................................................................................................108
6.6 Aerodynamic Performance Prediction ............................................................................108
6.7 Measured Power and Power Coefcient .........................................................................115
6.8 Construction ....................................................................................................................117
6.8.1 Blades................................................................................................................117
6.8.2 Rest of the System............................................................................................. 122
6.9 Evolution.........................................................................................................................125
6.10 Small Wind Turbines.......................................................................................................127
References.................................................................................................................................128
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 130
Chapter 7
Electrical....................................................................................................................................... 133
7.1 Fundamentals ..................................................................................................................133
7.1.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction ...................................................136
7.1.2 Phase Angle and Power Factor..........................................................................136
7.2 Generators .......................................................................................................................138
7.2.1 Induction Generator, Constant-RPM Operation................................................139
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viii Contents
7.2.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator, Variable-RPM Operation.............................142
7.2.3 Direct-Drive Generator, Variable-RPM Operation............................................143
7.2.4 Permanent Magnet Alternator, Variable-RPM Operation .................................143
7.2.5 Generator Comparisons..................................................................................... 143
7.2.6 Generator Examples..........................................................................................144
7.3 Power Quality..................................................................................................................145
7.4 Electronics....................................................................................................................... 147
7.4.1 Controllers......................................................................................................... 147
7.4.2 Power Electronics..............................................................................................149
7.4.3 Inverters.............................................................................................................150
7.5 Lightning.........................................................................................................................150
7.6 Resistance Dump Load ................................................................................................... 150
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 151
References.................................................................................................................................151
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 151
Chapter 8
Performance ................................................................................................................................. 153
8.1 Measures of Performance................................................................................................153
8.2 Windstats.........................................................................................................................155
8.3 Wind Farm Performance .................................................................................................155
8.3.1 California Wind Farms......................................................................................155
8.3.2 Other Wind Farms in the United States.............................................................157
8.3.3 Other Countries .................................................................................................158
8.4 Wake Effects....................................................................................................................160
8.5 Enertech 44......................................................................................................................161
8.6 Bergey Xcel..................................................................................................................... 164
8.7 Water Pumping................................................................................................................ 165
8.7.1 Farm Windmill ..................................................................................................166
8.7.2 Electric to Electric............................................................................................. 166
8.8 Wind-Diesel and Hybrid .................................................................................................167
8.9 Blade Performance..........................................................................................................169
8.9.1 Surface Roughness............................................................................................169
8.9.2 Boundary Layer Control ................................................................................... 172
8.9.3 Vortex Generators..............................................................................................173
8.9.4 Flow Visualization............................................................................................. 174
8.10 Comments ....................................................................................................................... 175
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 175
References.................................................................................................................................175
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 176
Chapter 9
Siting ............................................................................................................................................. 179
9.1 Small Wind Turbines.......................................................................................................179
9.1.1 Noise ................................................................................................................. 181
9.1.2 Visual Impact ....................................................................................................183
9.2 Wind Farms .....................................................................................................................184
9.2.1 Long-Term Reference Stations .........................................................................184
9.2.2 Siting for Wind Farms.......................................................................................184
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Contents ix
9.3 Digital Maps.................................................................................................................... 185
9.4 Geographic Information Systems.................................................................................... 186
9.5 Wind Resource Screening ...............................................................................................187
9.5.1 Estimated Wind Power for Texas, Pacic Northwest Labs ............................... 187
9.5.2 Estimated Wind Power for Texas, Alternative Energy Institute........................189
9.5.3 Wind Power for the United States..................................................................... 190
9.6 Numerical Models........................................................................................................... 191
9.7 Micrositing ......................................................................................................................192
9.8 Ocean Winds ...................................................................................................................196
9.9 Summary .........................................................................................................................196
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 197
References.................................................................................................................................197
Geographic Information Systems.............................................................................................. 198
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 198
Chapter 10
Applications and Wind Industry................................................................................................ 201
10.1 Utility Scale..................................................................................................................... 201
10.2 Small Wind Turbines.......................................................................................................202
10.3 Distributed Systems ........................................................................................................ 204
10.4 Wind-Diesel ....................................................................................................................206
10.5 Village Power..................................................................................................................209
10.5.1 China .................................................................................................................211
10.5.2 Case Study: Wind Village Power System..........................................................212
10.6 Water Pumping................................................................................................................ 213
10.6.1 Design of Wind Water Pumping System...........................................................214
10.6.2 Large Systems ...................................................................................................216
10.7 Wind Industry..................................................................................................................216
10.7.1 Wind Industry, 1980–1990................................................................................219
10.7.2 Wind Industry, 1990–2000................................................................................220
10.7.3 Wind Industry, 2000–2010................................................................................221
10.8 Comments ....................................................................................................................... 222
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 223
References.................................................................................................................................224
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 226
Chapter 11
Institutional ..................................................................................................................................227
11.1 Avoided Costs ................................................................................................................. 227
11.2 Utility Concerns ..............................................................................................................228
11.2.1 Safety.................................................................................................................228
11.2.2 Power Quality....................................................................................................229
11.2.3 Connection to the Utility...................................................................................229
11.2.4 Ancillary Costs.................................................................................................. 229
11.3 Regulations on Installation and Operation...................................................................... 230
11.4 Environment ....................................................................................................................230
11.5 Politics............................................................................................................................. 233
11.6 Incentives ........................................................................................................................234
11.6.1 United States .....................................................................................................234
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x Contents
11.6.1.1 State Incentives..............................................................................236
11.6.1.2 Green Power ..................................................................................237
11.6.1.3 Net Metering..................................................................................237
11.6.2 Other Countries .................................................................................................237
11.7 Externalities.....................................................................................................................239
11.8 Transmission ...................................................................................................................240
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 240
References.................................................................................................................................241
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 243
Chapter 12
Economics ..................................................................................................................................... 245
12.1 Factors Affecting Economics ..........................................................................................245
12.2 General Comments.......................................................................................................... 246
12.3 Economic Analysis.......................................................................................................... 247
12.3.1 Simple Payback.................................................................................................248
12.3.2 Cost of Energy...................................................................................................249
12.3.3 Value of Energy.................................................................................................251
12.4 Life Cycle Costs..............................................................................................................251
12.5 Present Worth and Levelized Costs.................................................................................253
12.6 Externalities.....................................................................................................................254
12.7 Wind Project Development .............................................................................................255
12.7.1 Costs..................................................................................................................258
12.7.2 Benets.............................................................................................................. 259
12.7.3 Sale of Electricity.............................................................................................. 259
12.8 Hybrid Systems ...............................................................................................................260
12.8 Summary .........................................................................................................................262
12.9 Future ..............................................................................................................................264
Links.......................................................................................................................................... 264
References.................................................................................................................................264
Problems.................................................................................................................................... 265
Wind Solutions .............................................................................................................................269
Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................................................269
Questions/Activities ........................................................................................................269
Problems.......................................................................................................................... 270
Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................................273
Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................................277
Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................................280
Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................................282
Chapter 7 ...................................................................................................................................287
Chapter 8 ...................................................................................................................................289
Chapter 9 ...................................................................................................................................291
Chapter 10 .................................................................................................................................294
Chapter 11 .................................................................................................................................295
Chapter 12 .................................................................................................................................296
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