Roberts A.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: from 1905 to 1940
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I I SOUTHERN AFRICA
literature
on the
major mining firms
is,
however informative,
apologetic:
cf.
Cartwright's business histories
and
Gregory's
biography
of
Sir Ernest Oppenheimer. More direct light is cast
by the correspondence of Lionel Phillips, a director of Wernher,
Beit
&
Co. (Fraser and Jeeves) and
by the
recent analyses
of
Yudelman and Innes. There are recent studies
of
the growth of
industrial protection (Kaplan), capitalist farming, especially in the
1930s (Morris), African agriculture (Simkins) and electrification
(Christie). Much other relevant work
is
embodied
in
regional
studies cited below.
The first scholar to investigate the growth of
a
black working
class in South Africa was Leubuscher; her work was ignored
in
the narrowly economic study
by
van der Horst. Twenty years
later, Doxey made
a
study
of
the industrial colour bar,
and
meanwhile several members
of
labour movements wrote highly
personal histories (e.g. Walker and Weinbren). After yet another
decade, Wilson examined the economic factors bearing
on the
wages
of
black workers
in
the goldmines.
In
the course
of
the
1970s, there was
a
notable upsurge of interest in labour history.
The mobilisation
of
black labour was surveyed
by
Lacey;
the
white working class was studied
at
length by Davies, and nine
essays in the collection edited by Webster are concerned with our
period. Most attention has been paid to the Rand and Johannes-
burg; besides Johnstone's book on black and white mineworkers
and Katz's on white craft unions before 1914, there are studies by
Johnstone, Bonner and Davies (in Bozzoli, 1979), by Moroney
(in Marks and Rathbone), by Lewis and by Adler. Oberholster
has written
in
Afrikaans
on the
white miners' strike
in
1922.
Dockworkers in Durban have been studied by Hemson, clothing
workers by Nicol and African military labour by Willan. On the
ICU,
see
Johns
(in
Rotberg
and
Mazrui,
p.
883), Wickins,
Bradford, and the reminiscences by Kadalie, Coka and Jingoes.
The literature on the urban Transvaal extends well beyond that
specifically concerned with labour.
In
the late 1930s there were
studies
of
the government
of
Johannesburg (Maud), economic
and cultural change among its African population (Phillips), social
relations
in
an African slum (Hellmann) and the experiences
of
a migrant healer in that slum (W. Sachs), while the external details
of white commercial
and
social life were documented
by A.
Macmillan. For forty years this heterogeneous body of work had
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
no sequel bearing on our period, apart from the official history
of one mine township (Humphriss
and
Thomas). Then
van
Onselen made studies of several social groups on the Rand before
1914;
Proctor wrote
on
Sophiatown
(in
Bozzoli, 1979), while
other relevant essays appeared in Bozzoli (1983). On rural South
Africa, there are two major studies which span the later nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries: Bundy
on
the eastern Cape and
Beinart on Pondoland (studied by Monica Hunter in the 1930s);
see also these authors' joint study of the eastern Cape between the
wars.
On the rural Orange Free State, see Keegan and Matsetela
(in Marks and Rathbone) and Keegan (in Bozzoli, 1983). Zulu
politics in our period, first analysed in microcosm by Gluckman,
are
the
subject
of
important articles
by
Marks;
in the
1930s,
Reyher recorded the reminiscences
of
a recently estranged wife
of the Zulu king.
Much work on social and cultural change
is
embodied in studies
with
a
local focus. Among studies with
a
territorial perspective,
there
is a
massive but narrowly conceived history of education
by Malherbe (with
a
long bibliography);
see
Kallaway's collection,
and Rose and Tunmer. There is an excellent history by Murray
of
the
University
of
the Witwatersrand
in our
period.
The
histories of Lovedale and Fort Hare have been written by former
principals: Shepherd (p. 901) and Kerr. Much may be learned
about educational history from the autobiographies of Brookes,
W. M. Macmillan, Z. K. Matthews (p. 905) and Paton. There is no
published history
of
medicine
in
South Africa,
but
there
is a
history of nursing (Searle) and Frack's memoirs describe medical
work among poor whites between the wars. The activities
of
women have recently received some attention, notably from
Gaitskell and Walker. The outstanding study of African indepen-
dent churches
in
South Africa
is by
Sundkler; other relevant
studies
of
Christianity, by Brown, Mills, Pauw, Schlosser, Seti-
loane and Strassberger, are listed on pp.
896-901.
Regrettably,
there
has
been
no
history
of
the South African press since
Cutten's thesis fifty years ago. There are, however, more recent
histories of radio (Rosenthal), cinema (Gutsche), scientific research
(Brown),
art and
architecture (Fransen)
and
architecture
in
Johannesburg between the wars (Herbert). Chapman has compiled
a representative anthology of poetry. No references are given here
to important novels written in the 1920s by William Plomer and
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I I SOUTHERN AFRICA
Pauline Smith, but there is an article by Wade on Sarah Gertrude
Millin,
a
prolific novelist
and
biographer. Studies
of
African
literature (by Couzens, Gerard, Jordan and Peires) and of African
music (by Coplan) are listed
on
pp.
908—11,
along with several
books by black writers; see also Malan's
Music encyclopaedia
and
the contributions of Couzens and Coplan to Marks and Rathbone.
South West Africa
The best bibliographical guidance
is
provided
by
Eriksen
and Moorsom. There
is no
adequate history
of
the territory
throughout
our
period,
and
historians have only just begun
to use local archives. There is, however,
an
excellent book
on
German rule
by
Bley, based
on
records
in
Germany,
as
well
as
a
rather simplistic study
by
Dreschler
of
African resistance.
Seitz, the governor from 1910
to
1915, left extensive memoirs.
On Ovamboland, see Clarence-Smith and Moorsom. The cession
of
a
mandate to South Africa has been discussed by Louis (p. 885,
and
in
Gifford and Louis (p. 883)) and Smith. The most recent
survey
of
the inter-war period
is
that
of
Cockram;
see
also
Swanson (in Gifford and Louis) and Dale; and for
a
contemporary
report, Toynbee. Relevant documents have been published
by
Braum and Dugard. Freislich has made
a
detailed study, based
partly on interviews, of the Bondelswarts rebellion, and there
is
an article by Pearson on the Rehoboth Basters' doomed bid for
independence
in
1925; documents on both incidents have been
assembled by de Waldt. For the territorial budget, see Krogh; on
labour, Moorsom; and on Christianity, Engel, de Vries, Loth and
Schlosser (pp. 897-902). Glimpses of white society may be found
in Levinson. Three visitors
in the
1930s. Farson
(p. 886),
Hardinge and Steer (p. 887), drew attention
to
local Nazism.
British consular reports throw light
on
political
as
well
as
economic conditions.
The High Commission Territories
There
is a
bibliography
by
Parsons, and
an
outline history
by
Halpern; relevant articles
are
published
in
Mohlomi (Roma,
Lesotho, 1979— ) and
Pula
(Gaborone, Botswana, 1978— ). For
contemporary views
on
the threat from the Union, see Barnes,
and Perham and Curtis. Kuczynski (p. 967) discusses the demo-
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
graphic evidence, and Hailey describes local government institu-
tions.
For Basutoland, there is an excellent bibliography by Willet
and Ambrose,
a
historical dictionary
by
Haliburton
and an
authorised mission history by Ellenberger
(p.
897). For Bechuana-
land, Schapera's research
as
both social anthropologist
and
historian
is of
fundamental importance
for our
period,
as is
Parsons' work on economic change among the Ngwato under
Khama; see also biographies
of
the Ngwato regent Tshekedi
Khama
by
Benson (i960)
and
Crowder (forthcoming).
For
Swaziland, there is a bibliography by Nyeko and
a
biography of
Sobhuza
II by
Kuper; Crush examines land segregation and
Packard traces links between disease, famine and migrancy.
12.
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
The most recent surveys of the region
in
our period are essays
by Phimister and Vail in the collection edited by Birmingham and
Martin (which has helpful bibliographies); these largely supersede
earlier regional studies, though Hancock's pioneering essay on the
regional economy
of
southern Africa
(p.
961)
is
still worth
pondering,
as is
Gray's Two
nations.
There are several relevant
essays
on
African involvement
in
capitalist agriculture
in the
collection edited by Palmer and Parsons; Ranger and others have
queried some
of
its underlying assumptions; see also essays by
Palmer and Vail in a collection edited by Rotberg (p. 894). Fetter
has recently attempted a geographical approach to the economic
history of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Macmillan's 1931
handbook provides information about numerous business firms.
Kuczynski (p. 967) remains the essential starting-point for any
discussion of demographic change, as does Ford (p. 892) for any
examination of the changing relationship between men, animals
and
the
environment, though Gelfand's territorial studies
of
medicine and disease are superficial. The links between religious,
social and political change in the region during our period were
first explored by Shepperson and further illuminated by Cross's
work
on
the Watch Tower (p. 896) and several essays
in the
collection edited by Ranger and Weller (p. 900); see also Ranger's
work
on
mchape
and
bent
(pp. 967, 975). The Isaacmans raise
interesting questions about resistance
to
colonial rule; Hooker
made an early study of welfare associations; and Rotberg traced
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12 BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
the growth
of
resistance
to
colonial rule
in
Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland. Hailey remains a necessary guide to local govern-
ment in the northern territories. Margery Perham (p. 963) kept
a journal of her travels through the region in 1930. Much research
on the period has been published in the Journal of
Southern
African
Studies.
Southern Rhodesia
The National Archives of Zimbabwe,
in
Harare, are among the
best
in
Africa. They include many non-official manuscripts
(cf.
Baxter and Burke) and also photographs, films and tapes; an oral
history programme has lately been initiated. Access to government
records
is
controlled by
a
thirty-year rule; there
is a
guide
by
Baxter to those of the British South Africa Company, and other
useful guides by Walker, and Willson and Passmore. Due to its
peculiar constitutional status, Southern Rhodesia never produced
blue books
or
reports
for
the territory
as a
whole (its trade
statistics between 1906 and 1930 were published by the South
African customs administration), but
it
published official year-
books in 1924, 1930 and
1932,
and the statistical yearbook of 1938
is listed here. Copious bibliographical assistance is provided by
Pollak and Pollak; see also Pichanick
et
al.
Relevant local journals
include Rhodesian History (1970—
)
and the
Rhodesian
Journal of
Economics.
In many ways
the
most penetrating account
of
Southern
Rhodesia early in this century remains the contemporary study by
the Belgian lawyer Henri Rolin. Gann provides
a
detailed and
highly idiosyncratic survey ending
in
1934; Blake's polished
narrative dismisses most developments in our period as ' not very
interesting' (p. xiii). Constitutional change has been described at
length by Palley. The white power structure has been analysed,
from a variety of perspectives, by Leys, Arrighi and Murray; see
also Henderson, Hummel and Mackenzie. An early legislator,
Ethel Tawse-Jollie, expounded her views
in
print. There
is a
perceptive biography of Huggins by Gann and Gelfand. Relations
with Britain, South Africa and the northern territories have been
discussed by Chanock, Warhurst and Wetherell. Kosmin has told
the story
of
Jewish settlement,
and Lee has
looked
at the
beginnings of white trade unions. There are studies, by no means
definitive,
of the
police (Gibbs)
and the
press (Gale),
and
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
outmoded books on the Native Affairs Department (Maclean) and
the earlier history of Salisbury (Tanser).
The best short overview
of
economic change
is
Phimister's
chapter in Birmingham and Martin. Arrighi's pioneering analysis
of the proletarianisation
of
Africans farming
for the
market
influenced contributors
to
the Palmer and Parsons collection,
though it has recently been criticised by Mosley in a comparative
study which presents much statistical material. Palmer
has
examined the evolution
of
land policies (appending
a
very full
bibliography) and Weinmann the growth of agricultural research.
A thesis by Machingaidze shows how settler farming was aided
and subsidised by government. Clements and Harben trace the
fortunes of the tobacco industry. There is
a
penetrating analysis
by Phimister of the marketing problems facing cattle ranchers, and
Keyter discusses the effects of maize control. For a study of white
farming
in
one district, see Hodder-Williams; Hylda Richards
provides one farmer's testimony
for
the 1930s. Zachrisson has
studied
a
reserve
in
which Africans found
a
continuing market
in nearby mines, while Rennie has looked at the history of black
tenant-farmers. The only study
of
the railways (Croxton)
is
narrowly technical, but the mining industry and mine labour have
been treated
in
numerous publications
by van
Onselen
and
Phimister; see also Bowen's production histories of twenty mines.
Research
on
other sectors
of
employment has scarcely begun.
Mittlebeeler's study of Africans and the criminal law does little
to illuminate the problems of African workers.
Ranger (1970) pioneered the study of African opinion in our
period, quoting extensively from the archives. The experiences of
educated Africans are recounted
in
several works that blend
history with biography
or
autobiography, such
as
those
by
Vambe. For the impact
of
missions and education, see Bhebe,
Dachs and Rea (pp. 895—6) and Atkinson, and
a
wide-ranging
thesis
by
Rennie
(p.
900);
see
also Steere
and
Ranger
on
A. S. Cripps. Independent churches are discussed
in
detail
by
Daneel, Dillon-Malone and Murphree (pp. 896-99).
Northern Rhodesia
The National Archives
of
Zambia (see Graham and Halwindi)
have been much used by historians
of
our period. There
is a
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12 BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
comprehensive bibliography by Rau, while Rennie has compiled
a preliminary catalogue
of
manuscript collections. Current
research
is
noted
in the
annual bulletin History
in
Zambia
(1970—
);
local journals include African
Social Research
and the
Zambia journal of History (19 81 -
).
The best introduction
to
the country's history is by Roberts,
who also provides an excellent annotated bibliography. The most
detailed survey of
the
first half of the twentieth century is by Gann
(1964).
Davidson remains the best guide to white politics in our
period, though Rotberg has written a biography of Gore-Browne.
There are recent theses on government propaganda (Smyth), the
impact
of the
First World
War
(Yorke)
and
legal change
(Kanganja). Chanock
(in Hay and
Wright,
p. 910)
shows
'customary' law being invented. Slinn examines the history
of
mineral and mining rights. Key issues in economic change have
been illuminated by
an
economist (Baldwin), but three studies
made
in
the 1930s remain valuable: the Merle Davis collective
report on the social effects of copper-mining, Audrey Richards's
study of the Bemba rural economy and Sir Alan Pim's report for
the Colonial Office. The history
of
the mining industry
has
attracted much research.
For the
Anglo American mines,
see
Gregory (p. 960) and Bancroft; Coleman contributes
a
techno-
logical study focused on Nchanga, and Cunningham
a
narrowly
focused account
of
mining finance. The economic strategies
of
mine companies, in relation to their use of labour and technology,
are discussed
by
Perrings
(p.
951), who also examines
the
responses
of
African workers; see also Epstein, Henderson and
Berger. By comparison, white mineworkers and farmers are still
too little known. Kanduza has written on the tobacco industry;
Winifred Tapson's memoirs illuminate white society on and off
the line of rail.
On African agriculture, Allan (p. 891) and Hellen must
be
consulted. Patterns
of
change
in
African rural societies may
be
traced
in a
number
of
monographs: Caplan
and
Hermitte
(Lozi),
Barnes and Rau (Ngoni), Dixon-Fyle and Vickery (plateau
Tonga), Watson and Meebelo (the north-east); see also articles by
van Horn and Muntemba
(in
Palmer and Parsons), Vail and
Musambachime. The history
of
education has been studied
in
institutional terms by Snelson and Coombe. Works relating more
specifically to the Christian impact are listed on pp. 896-902; they
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
include monographs by Bolink, Garvey, Taylor and Lehmann,
and Rotberg, and contributions by Cook, Hastings and Ranger
to the collection edited by Ranger and Weller. Much of Cross's
thesis
on
Watch Tower deals with Northern Rhodesia. Van
Binsbergen boldly essays
a
model of religious change.
Nyasaland
Access
to
the National Archives
of
Malawi was very restricted
during much of the 1960s and 1970s. Boeder (1979) provides an
annotated bibliography, but there is no adequate overall historical
survey. Some relevant work has appeared in the
Society
of Malawi
Journal formerly the
Nyasaland Journal)
and
the
University
of
Malawi's
Journal
of
Social
Science.
There
is
little
to
our purpose
in the collection edited by Pachai (1972) but plenty
in
that by
Macdonald. Pachai (1973) derives from radio talks. The out-
standing work
on
our period
is
also one
of
the earliest:
the
biography of John Chilembwe by Shepperson and Price (see also
Shepperson's contribution
to
Pachai (1972), and work
by
the
Lindens and D. D. Phiri). Other aspects of religious independency
are discussed
by
Lohrentz and Shepperson.
A
wide range
of
African responses to Christian missions is discussed in books by
Linden
and
McCracken;
see
also Stuart
and
Thompson
(pp.
901-2). The political role
of
mission elites
is
stressed
in
articles by van Velsen and Tangri; Chanock (1975) stresses that
of African farmers, K. M. Phiri explores Afro-American con-
nexions
and
Vail
the
growth
of
tribal identity. Books
by
Bandawe, Kadalie (p. 961) and Mwase (p. 908) throw much light
on African attitudes and experience.
Economic history has only recently received much attention.
The growth of labour migration has been outlined by Boeder; see
also Makambe, and the story by Ntara (p. 909). As yet, archival
research has added little to studies in the 1930s of the effects of
labour migration by Read and by the government's own com-
mission
of
enquiry. However, Dean's work
on the
African
tobacco industry has now been supplemented by several studies
of African agriculture: Chanock
(1972),
Vaughan
(1982),
Mandala,
McCracken (1983). Land policies have been outlined by Pachai
(1978) and Vail has shown how far railway policies were from
serving Nyasaland's economic interests. Research into
the
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12 BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
structures of colonial authority is still in its infancy. For changes
in local government, see Barnekov as well as Hailey, and for legal
change Wanda; Chanock has looked scepticdly at the administra-
tion
of
'customary' law. McCracken (1982) and Vaughan have
examined aspects of the application to government of'expertise'.
The impact of the First World War has been summarised by Page;
see also Moyse-Bartlett (p. 975) and de Guingand's reminiscences
of KAR service in 1926-7.
13.
EAST AFRICA
Archives relating
to
East Africa in our period have been much
used by historians. They are described in Harlow and Chilver, and
there are guides to the government archives of Kenya (Gregory
et al.) and German East Africa (Tanzania National Archives).
Other German government records are kept in Potsdam and (for
Ruanda-Urundi) Brussels. Microfilms of many records in Kenya's
archives are available
at
Syracuse University, NY, and Rhodes
House Library, Oxford; Syracuse also has microfilms
of
many
East African newspapers, while East Africa is well represented in
the manuscript collections at Rhodes House. There are compre-
hensive territorial bibliographies for Kenya (Webster et al.) and
Zanzibar (Bennett). The earlier literature is extensively listed in
Harlow.and Chilver;
see
also
the
historiographical essay
by
Strandmann and Smith in Gifford and Louis (p. 883).
Relevant documents have been published by Low on Buganda,
and by Mungeam, on Kenya. Useful contemporary handbooks for
East Africa were compiled
by
the East African Standard and
Macmillan. Several administrators published memoirs,
for
example Gotzen, Methner and Schnee (German East Africa),
Archer (p. 986), Dundas and Mitchell (various British territories),
Bell (Uganda) and Lumley (Tanganyika);
so
did von Lettow-
Vorbeck and two medical men, Cook (Uganda) and Carman
(Kenya). Meinertzhagen,
a
British army officer, published selec-
tions from his diaries. British rule and settlement in Kenya were
criticised by two retired officials, Leys (a doctor) and Ross (an
engineer). Settler experiences were recorded
by
two Germans,
von Byern and Priisse, and
by
four women
in
Kenya, Blixen,
Carnegie, Simpson and Grant (ed. Elspeth Huxley), of whom all
but the last had left by 1931. Among accounts by visitors, Weule's
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
report on southern Tanzania in 1906 may stand as an example of
German ethnography; Schuster (p. 887) served
on
the Hilton
Young Commission; Julian Huxley toured East Africa
in
1929
and Margery Perham
in
1929-30.
For
Kenya, there
are two
African memoirs, by Thuku and Kindy, and
for
German East
Africa reminiscences recorded
by
Kootz-Kretschmer
and by
Tanzanian students
(in
Gwassa
and
Iliffe). Kayamba's auto-
biography appeared in a collection by Perham (p. 906); books by
Kayamba, Kenyatta and Mockerie are listed on p. 908.
Despite
a
now voluminous secondary literature, the essential
introduction
to
the region
in
our period remains the Oxford
History
of
East Africa, vol. 11 (1965), edited
by
Harlow
and
Chilver. There are also relevant essays on immigrant communities
and their impact in vol.
m
(1976), edited by Low and Smith; this
includes political and statistical data for the period since
c.
1920.
There
are
several other works which refer
to
two
or
more
territories:
on
frontiers (McEwen,
p.
885), regimental history
Moyse-Bartlett), railways (Hill), business firms (Stahl, Munro),
economic policy (Brett), banking (Henry, p. 892), the First World
War (Boell, Hordern
and
Stacke, Mosley, Hodges;
see
also
Belgium, Moulaert and Muller, listed on pp. 948, 951). The best
account
of
the 'closer union* debate
is
Gregory's study
of
the
' Asian question' (on which see also Tinker
(p.
890), Rai, Mangat);
Baumhogger's account of regional integration breaks off in 1927,
though
a
sequel
is
promised. Hailey described the structures of
indirect rule; Morris and Read examine its legal implications. Beck
represents medical history
at its
narrowest, but there
is
much
relevant material
in
Ford's study
of
the tsetse-fly (p. 892), as
in
Kuczynski's demographic work (p. 967); cf. also Lury. Listed on
pp.
898-902
are
relevant studies
of
missionary work (Oliver,
Heremans, H. Smith) and African Christian initiatives (Pirouet,
Welbourn).
On
education, Furley
and
Watson have written
administrative rather than social
or
intellectual history; wider
perspectives
are
explored
by
Goldthorpe, King
and
Ranger
(1965).
Gulliver presents some relevant material on the growth
of tribal identities; Ranger (1975) surveys the spread of
beni
dance
societies; Whiteley the expansion and use of Swahili; and Lonsdale
the widening of political horizons. Relevant articles have appeared
in local publications:
the
Uganda Journal, Tanzania Notes and
Records, Kenya Historical Review, Transafrican Journal of History.
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