Roberts A.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: from 1905 to 1940
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7 FRENCH BLACK AFRICA
reflected in his Pay sans noirs (1931). There are studies of the
colonial factor in French fiction by Lebel, Howe (p. 889),
Fanoudh-Sieffer, Cairns and Steins, and of African writing in
French by Blair (p. 909). There is unfortunately no French-
language selection of primary materials on French black Africa
though translated extracts on our period may be found in
Hargreaves's
France and
West Africa.
Until a few years ago, scholars were denied access to French
colonial records later than 1920. The best books in our field are
mostly concerned with the period before 1914, and there are many
questions on which it is still necessary to turn to older works
whose authors were confined to printed sources and were
influenced by colonial attitudes. In recent years, however, the
unpublished sources for the inter-war period have been quarried
by several younger historians, many of them African. Some of
their first results have appeared in periodicals, notably
Cahiers
a"etudes
africaines,
the
Revue francaise
d'histoire d'outre-mer and the
Journal of African
History,
but much remains in unpublished theses.
These are listed here extensively, since the last relevant
consolidated guide (Dinstel,
p.
881) concluded in
1961
(though see
CARDAN, p. 881). Specially important are theses written on
Senegal for the University of Dakar and those written for the
University of Paris-VII, mostly on the socio-economic history of
twentieth-century Africa. They may be consulted in the research
library of the Laboratoire ' Connaissance du Tiers-Monde', UER
Geographie, Histoire et Sciences de la Societe, Paris. The author
of chapter 7 is heavily indebted to several of these works; the
archival research on which they are based has brought to light
much of the new material presented in that chapter.
The most comprehensive survey of the whole period is
Suret-Canale's excellent work, though Buell (1928) and the more
orthodox Roberts (1929) are still worth consulting on a wide
range of subjects. For an attempt to see the period in a longer
historical perspective, see Coquery-Vidrovitch (1976).
France and
Britain
in Africa, edited by Gifford and Louis, includes relevant
essays on mandates, administration, economics, and education by
Austen, Cohen, Deschamps, Fieldhouse, Gifford and Weiskel;
see also the collection presented to Brunschwig (p. 882). Girardet
(1972) examines French awareness of the colonial empire; Betts
(1978) is a brief but wide-ranging survey.
The first general history of French West Africa was that of
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Delafosse (1931); for more recent studies of the whole region see
Hargreaves and Chailley. Useful background material on both
French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa is provided in
four volumes of the
Encyclopedie coloniale
et maritime (1949-51) and
in the handbooks produced for the British Admiralty in 1942-3;
see also the works of Thompson and
Adloff.
For a recent
historical survey of French Equatorial Africa, see Austen and
Headrick; see also Terrier (1931), Bruel (1918, 1935), and the
work of the geographers Maurette and Sautter. The advent of
political independence prompted general histories of Cameroun,
Chad, Dahomey and Togo, but these should now be used with
caution. More recent is Kalck's history of Ubangi-Shari, which
draws on a much longer thesis, and Manning's work on Dahomey.
Coquery-Vidrovitch's study of French Congo covers most of our
period. Fuglestad and Salifou have written theses on Niger, and
Pambo-Loueya on Gabon. The biographical series Les Africains
(Julien et al. p. 883) includes essays (volume numbers in paren-
theses) on Amadu Bamba (2), Atangana (5), Diagne (12), Gueye
(3),
S. Hamahullah (9), Karnou (4), Matswa (11), Njoya (9), and
Wongo (11).
It is over half a century since the last attempt was made to
examine the evolution of French colonial government in Africa
both at the regional and at the metropolitan level (Roberts, 1929).
For some reflections on supposed contrasts with British policy and
practice, by a retired governor, see Deschamps (1963). Andrew
and Kanya-Forstner (1974) consider colonial pressures on French
legislators; Persell examines the 'colonial lobby' in France. There
is no adequate study of the French colonial ministry in our period.
On the French colonial service in Africa, see Cohen; on the Ecole
coloniale, Rigollot. There is a short eulogy of van Vollenhoven
by Mangeot (1943), a biography of Maurice Delafosse by his
daughter (Delafosse, 1976) and essays on colonial governors,
Delavignette, Eboue and Ponty, in the collection edited by Gann
and Duignan (p. 883). For reference material on colonial legisla-
tion, see Girault, and Rolland and Lampue. On French West
Africa, there are essays on land law (Hugues, Demaison) and
studies of African law and custom (Robert; Comite d'etudes); for
a recent sceptical analysis of 'customary' law in Senegal, see
Snyder. The only general military history is that of Denis (1931)
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7 FRENCH BLACK AFRICA
on French Equatorial Africa, but Echenberg has studied military
conscription
in
French West Africa and
a
survey
of
the French
military in Africa is expected from Clayton.
At the territorial level, there are studies of colonial administra-
tion over
all or
most
of
the period
for
Dahomey (Asiwaju,
Lombard, Moseley),
the
Ivory Coast (Amon d'Aby), Senegal
(Zucarelli), Togo (Pechoux), northern Cameroun (Burnham),
Congo (Aissi, Bafouetela) and Ubangi-Shari (Weinstein; see also
his biography
of
Governor Eboue). African politics
in the
communes of Senegal have been well studied up to
1920
by Wesley
Johnson (1971). Anti-colonial resistance in Dahomey throughout
the period has been examined by Anignikin (see also Suret-Canale,
1964);
for migration out of the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta, see
Asiwaju, and Nazi Boni (p. 923). Several studies
of
the period
have focused
on
particular peoples: the Gurunsi and Mossi
of
Upper Volta (Duperray, Skinner); the Mawri of Niger (Piault);
the Beti of Cameroun (Quinn); the Kugni and Kongo of Congo
(Boussoukou-Boumba, Kinata
Come);
the Bandia of Ubangi-Shari
(de Dampierre); the peoples
of
eastern Chad (Moukhtar);
the
Fang of Gabon (Fernandez).
For the economic history
of
the period, Marseille (1984)
is
essential on metropolitan factors. Coquery-Vidrovitch,
in
Brun-
schwig (p. 882), compares French West and Equatorial Africa.
There
is
reference material
for
the earlier years
in
French West
Africa in Cosnier (1921). On the Ivory Coast see Kipre and Yayat
d'Alepe (up
to
1919);
on
Senegal, Mbodj and the quantitative
analysis by Vanhaeverbeke. Investment in French West Africa has
been examined by Coquery-Vidrovitch (1977); she and Laurens-
Berge have also studied the big trading companies in the region.
For big business
in
the Congo, see Rey (1971) and Coquery-
Vidrovitch (1972). On railways, see Faur (French West Africa)
and N'Jazry
(Senegal);
on public works in the Ivory Coast, Semi-Bi
(1973),
and
on
copper-mining
in
Congo, Ndinga-Bo. African
traders
in
Niger have been studied
by
Baier. The provident
societies of French West Africa were described by Boyer in 1935;
for those in Senegal, see also A. Sow. On the forest resources of
French black Africa, see Bertin (1918-20/1929).
There are general studies
of
social change
in
relation
to
the
Ivory Coast (Semi-Bi)
and
Souanke,
in the
northern Congo
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
(Robineau); see also accounts of Dakar (Seek), Brazzaville (Frey),
Porto Novo (Tardits) and Douala (Derrick) and Kipre's study of
urbanisation in the Ivory Coast. Demographic studies have been
attempted
for
the Congo, by Koumba-Bayengoula, and for the
Ivory Coast, by Domergue. The latter has also studied the medical
history
of
that territory, while that
of
Cameroun and Chad has
been examined
by
Delancey and Azevedo
in
the collection
by
Hartwig and Patterson
(p.
892). There
are
theses
on
railway
workers
in
Dahomey (Cocou) and on forced labour
in
Senegal
(B.
Fall); Cordell and Gregory have studied labour migration in
Upper Volta. On education
in
French West Africa up
to
1920,
there is
a
magisterial study by Bouche (1975) and
a
brief survey
of the whole period by Sabatier. For education in Senegal, see also
Blakemore in Battle and Lyons (p. 882); for Guinee, Johnson in
Brown and Hiskett (p. 882); for the Ivory Coast, Allangba. There
are studies of missionary schools in Guinee (Donkoure), Soudan
(Harding) and Gabon (N'doume Assebe), and also of education
and administration in Dahomey up to 1920 (Garcia, 1971). Other
studies of the Christian impact (listed on pp. 895-902) focus on
Dahomey (Alladaye, Hardy), Ivory Coast (Bee, van Slageren,
Welch), Togo (Grau, Debrunner), French Equatorial Africa
(Villemagne), Cameroun (Bouchaud, Bureau, Hallden, Ngongo),
French Congo (Andersson); there
is
an overall survey by Sartorius.
Studies
of
Islam are listed on pp. 903-5. There
is
still too little
to set beside Gouilly's account of Islam in French West Africa:
Triaud's work on the Ivory Coast, Cruise O'Brien's book on the
Murids
of
Senegal and Traore's thesis
on
Hamallism
in
West
Africa. African voices were often prominent in the colonial press:
there
are
theses
on
Dahomey (Codo Lokossou)
and
Togo
(Guillaneuf).
For
the
years before 1914, Brunschwig (1966) provides
a
stimulating sketch
of
French expansion;
see
also Coquery-
Vidrovitch in Gann and Duignan (1969, p. 883). The importance
of African questions for French politics up to the First World War
has been examined by Andrew, Grupp and Kanya-Forstner, and
by Andrew and Kanya-Forstner
(1971,
1976);
for
the role
of
socialists
and
anti-colonialists,
see
Suret-Canale (1978)
and
Thomas (i960). Rabut (1979) considers attempts
to
control the
concession companies.
On
French colonial theory during this
period, see Betts (1961); for French West Africa, see Forgeron
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7 FRENCH BLACK AFRICA
(1920) and Cruise O'Brien's study of the Muslim factor in French
policy-making (p. 903). Michel (1974) examines Mangin's (1910)
arguments
for
a force
noire;
Balesi surveys black troops from
French West Africa up to 1918.
There are now studies of colonial conquest and administrative
expansion in the Congo (Mazenot) and Gabon (Berre, Mangongo
Nzambi); there
is
also
a
more restricted study
of
Dahomey
(Pinion). Other scholars have concentrated on African reactions
to 'pacification'; in Mauritania (Ba), Senegal (Klein, Roche), the
Ivory Coast
(Cheriff,
Weiskel, Wondji), Niger (Idrissa), Chad
(Moukhtar). There is much material on economic change before
1914 in studies already mentioned which range well beyond that
date.
Bobrie has investigated the costs
of
French conquest. For
some reflections
oh
French colonial trade before 1914,
see
Marseille (1976). Mangolte
has
studied
the
railway from
the
Guinee coast
to the
Niger. Bouche (1968) throws valuable
if
indirect light on early labour history in French black Africa; Betts
and M'bokolo have studied the social implications of disease
in
Dakar.
Debate in France on the role of her colonies in the First World
War has been examined by Andrew and Kanya-Forstner (1981).
Marc Michel's outstanding study of French West Africa's involve-
ment in the war (1982) was preceded by articles on recruitment
in that region (1973), the search for overseas troops in 1918 (1971)
and
the
political effects
of
war
in
Senegal (1974). Crowder
provides a brief survey for West Africa. There are articles on the
social effects
of
recruitment in Guinee (Summers and Johnson),
Dahomey (d'Almeida Topor), the Ivory Coast (Domergue, 1976;
Picciola); there
is a
thesis on Cameroun by Ngande. Resistance
movements during the war have received special attention:
in
Dahomey (Garcia,
1970),
Upper Volta (Hebert), Niger (Fuglestad,
Salifou, Triaud) and Cameroun (Quinn). The Harris movement
in
the
Ivory Coast
has
been studied
by
Bureau, Haliburton,
Paulme and Shank (see pp. 896-901). On the influenza epidemic
of 1918-19, see the reports
of
1920-1 by Gouzien and Huot et al.
Research on the inter-war years has recently greatly increased.
French hopes of colonial gains during and after the First World
War are discussed by Andrew and Kanya-Forstner
(1981).
Ageron
considers relations with Germany (p. 883) and French public
opinion; on African troops in occupied Germany, see Nelson and
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Marks. Moneta and O'Melia examine the views of the French
Communist Party on the colonial question. For African anti-
colonial activity in France, see Langley (p. 911), Sagna, Sow and
Sy. On the 'German question' in Cameroun, see Joseph and
Derrick. Coquery-Vidrovitch (1979) offers a general review
of French colonial policy between the wars; Cohen (1972) looks
at that of the Popular Front; Ageron, Michel and Marseille have
contributed to a symposium on French attitudes to empire in the
later 1930s. Michel discusses the reformist approach of Delafosse
to 'native policy' in 1919; Labouret criticised orthodox ideas
about chiefs in
1931;
and there is a thesis by Auchnie on chiefs in
Senegal. On the conference of colonial governors-general in 1936,
see Marseille (1977); on the Popular Front's attitude to forced
levies in West Africa, see Bernard-Duquenet. There are theses on
the impact of the Popular Front in Senegal (Bernard-Duquenet;
see also Person) and the Ivory Coast (Lomme), and on Cameroun
between the wars (Tchoualle).
For some general reflections on the economic history of the
inter-war period, see Coquery-Vidrovitch (1976, 1978) and
Durand. Investment in French colonies is examined by Dresch,
Bobrie and Marseille (1974, 1977); for colonial links with the
French cotton industry, see Marseille
(1975).
Poquin considers the
external economic relations of French black Africa. The depression
of 1930 and its aftefmath is the theme of several studies. Some
have been collected by Coquery-Vidrovitch (1976): these include
papers on public investment (Bobrie), the Bank of (French) West
Africa (Zinsou-Derlin), the trading firm of Peyrissac (Robin),
Dakar (Lakroum), the Ivory Coast
(Braibant),
Guinee (Trentadue),
Togo (Batsch). Articles published elsewhere concern West Africa
(d'Almeida Topor, on wage labour), the Ivory Coast (Tiacoh)
and Senegal (Mersadier); industrialisation in Senegal is treated
in a thesis by Fall.
The economic and social condition of Africans was the subject
of some valuable enquiries between the world wars, culminating
in reports on French West Africa by Moreau (1938) and Labouret
(1941).
A study of sleeping-sickness in this region appeared in
1924 (Vassal); there is a thesis by Domingo on preventive
medicine in Dahomey since
1914.
In 1938 there was an anonymous
report on food supplies in the French colonies; this can now be
supplemented by articles on food production in Cameroun
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7 FRENCH BLACK AFRICA
(Guyer) and on the great famine of
1931
in Niger (Fugelstad), as
well as the study of famine in Gabon in Sautter (1966). There are
theses on banana plantations in Guinee (Brouwer) and on
agricultural 'colonisation' in Chad (Moussabou). For cattle-
keeping in French West Africa, see Mathis (1946). In 1933 Mercier
reported on forced labour in French Africa; there is a thesis on
forced labour and migration in Cameroun (Koufan), while Sautter
has examined the human cost of the Congo-Ocean railway. The
growth of wage labour has been studied in relation to Senegal
(Lakroum) and Cameroun (Chatap; see also Kaptue); the impact
of the 1930s depression on Africans in Guinee (Trentadue) and
towns in the Ivory Coast (Kipre) and Cameroun (Kouo). The only
white community to have been studied in detail over the inter-war
period is that of the Ivory Coast (Tirefort).
Hitherto, research on the politics of African labour between the
wars has concentrated on Senegal, where the railway strikes of
1919 and 1938 have been studied by Thiam (1977, 1972), while
Bernard-Duquenet (1977) has examined the beginnings of trade
unionism in the 1930s. On the popular protest in Porto Novo in
1923,
see Ballard and Anignikin; on African politics in the
communes of Senegal, see Thiam (1976) and Cissojho. The roots
of African nationalism in popular thought have been studied in
a thesis by Merlo; a thesis by Spiegler considers nationalist
thought in French West Africa before 1939, while Owona
discusses its emergence in Cameroun; Codo Coffi's thesis on the
press in Dahomey is also pertinent, as is Hymans's biography of
Senghor (p. 910). The revolt of the Baya, in French Equatorial
Africa, in 1928-32, is the subject of a thesis by Nzabakomada;
see also Michel (1966) and Burnham and Christensen. Matswa's
movement in French Congo is described by Sinda. Coquery-
Vidrovitch, in Julien et al. (p. 883), vol. 11, examines Wongo's
revolt in Gabon. Education between the wars has been studied
by Wele (Senegal) and Mvondo Nyina (Cameroun); Kelly
considers the teaching of history in French West Africa.
Madagascar
In Tananarive, the archives of the Malagasy Republic (AMR)
house the records of the central government. These include
correspondence with the provinces, but this is not an adequate
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
basis for studying local history. Apart from files on chambers of
commerce, the AMR hold few business records, though they and
the Academie Malgache have collections
of
local newspapers.
Several ecclesiastical bodies
in or
near Tananarive possess
important archives:
the
Roman Catholic archbishopric,
the
Jesuits, the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (formerly the
London Missionary Society),
the
Anglican
and
Norwegian
Lutheran churches.
In Paris,
the
archives
of
the ministry
of
colonies contain
abundant material on the political history of Madagascar (dupli-
cating much of that in Tananarive) and on economic affairs since
1930;
the records of the Inspection generate des colonies are also
highly relevant. The record office
at
Aix-en-Provence holds
material on political affairs and possesses the fullest set of annual
district reports (though even this has serious gaps); here also are
reports from departments and from inspection missions between
1925 and 1940, but none from governors-general between 1915
and 1940.
There is as yet no guide to archival materials for Madagascar.
There is however
a
comprehensive bibliography by Grandidier,
continued
by
Fontvieille,
and a
very full list
of
periodicals
concerned with Madagascar, based largely on the holdings of the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris (Poitelon
et
al.)
The
history
department of the University of Madagascar publishes the journal
Omaly sy Anio ('Yesterday and Today'); this began
in
1975 and
each issue has included material on the period 1905-40.
The only French administrators
in
Madagascar
to
have pub-
lished memoirs for this period are Olivier (governor, 1924-30) and
Deschamps (p. 986), who served there in 1926-30 and much of
1933-8.
Mannoni's celebrated psychological study
of
colonial
relationships was based on experience gained as an ethnographer.
Marcuse offers impressions of Sakalava country in 1911—12.
Our period receives relatively little space
in the
general
histories
of
Madagascar
by
Boiteau, Deschamps and Ralaimi-
hoatra; Brown gives it five pages. There is as yet no general study
of Madagascar under colonial rule. For general reference, see (in
chronological order of publication) Delelee-Desloges, Rusillon,
Encyclopedic de l'Empire francais, Isnard, Robequain, Thompson
and
Adloff,
Rajemisa-Raolison.
The administrative evolution of the colonial government has
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7 FRENCH BLACK AFRICA
been studied by Massiot; there is also a thesis by Richard on the
administration of Augagneur. For earlier studies of French rule,
see Olivier and You;
for a
recent critical appraisal, Fremigacci
(1978).
Slawecki
has
studied French policy towards Chinese
immigrants. On the local impact of the Popular Front government
in France, see Koerner (1974). The Malagasy role
in
colonial
administration is examined by Fenard and Condominas. There are
relevant essays by Schlemmer and Randrianja in Raison-Jourde's
collection on kingship. Studies
of
Christianity are listed on pp.
897-902:
on
relations between church and state, see Vidal;
on
Malagasy Protestants, Mondain, Koerner (1971) and Gow.
There are several early studies
of
economic change (Loisy,
Fauchere, Gayet). On forced labour, see Fremigacci (1975);
on
Madagascar during the First World War, see Garbit (the governor
in 1914—17); Gontard (1969) and Esoavelomandroso (1975);
tne
last named has also studied African reactions to measures against
plague between the wars. On the depression, see Prunieres. There
are recent articles on food supplies (Feugeas), business (Jacob and
Koerner) and local ironworking (Fremigacci); see also essays by
Waast and Fauroux in Sautter et
al.
Economic reference material
for the period may be found in Razoharinoro-Randriamboavonjy.
On official language policy in education, see Esoavelomandroso
(1976).
For the roots
of
Malagasy nationalism see Kent, Dama-
Ntsoha, Rabemananjara (J. and R. W.) and Solohery Ranarison;
on Ravoahangy, see Tronchon; on Ralaimongo, Domenichini.
Schlemmer has made a study of the colonial period among the
Menabe
of
western Madagascar. Various other regional studies,
mostly sociological, are useful
for
the period:
on
the Androy
(Decary), Antaisaka
and the
south-east (Deschamps, 1959),
Sakalava (Fauroux) and Tanala (Linton).
8. BRITISH WEST AFRICA AND LIBERIA
There are several useful territorial bibliographies: for the Gambia
(Gamble); the Gold Coast/Ghana (Cardinall, Johnson, Witherell
and Lockwood); Nigeria (Aguolu, Baum); Sierra Leone (Luke,
Williams); Kamerun/Cameroons
(De
Lancey)
and
Liberia
(Holsoe, 1971, 1976). There are lists of government publications
for Nigeria (Lockwood), Sierra Leone and the Gambia (Walker)
and Liberia (Holsoe, 1968). There are also various regional and
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
thematic bibliographies:
for
Asante (Afre), the Ewe (Arkaifie,
Zielnica), the Niger Delta (Ombu), labour
in
Nigeria (Orima-
lade),
anthropology and language study in Nigeria (Ita), urbanisa-
tion (Simms), politics in the Gold Coast/Ghana (Agyei), medicine
in West Africa (Tettey). For the economic history of West Africa,
see the bibliography in Hopkins (1973) and his articles on business
history (listed on p. 893).
For guides
to
archives
in
Europe and the USA, see above,
p.
880. For archives in the Gambia, see Gailey (1968); for Ghana,
Henige and Dumett (1974); for Sierra Leone, Howard (1966); for
Kamerun, Mohammadou;
for
Liberia, Foley. There
are
brief
reports on archives in Ghana, Cameroun and Liberia in History
in Africa (1974, 1976, 1978). A list by C. Fyfe of the Sierra Leone
archives
is in the
library
of
the Foreign and Commonwealth
Office, London.
In
1961-3
the
Nigerian National Archives
produced a series of mimeographed lists of records for particular
departments and topics: outside Nigeria, the largest holdings of
these are at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, London.
For the former British territories,
the
relevant government
records have been preserved at the Public Record Office, London,
and
in
the archives
of
the new African states. Official corres-
pondence and memoranda concerning German Togo are divided
between the colonial archives in Potsdam, the National Archives
of Ghana and the Archives Nationales du Togo (whose German
records have now been catalogued). Official records for Kamerun
are preserved
in
Yaounde and Potsdam; those
of
the British
mandate
are in
Buea and London. Those
for
Liberia
are in
Monrovia, while the US National Archives in Washington, DC
are also important.
On the
relevant business
and
missionary
records, see the bibliographical essays for chapters
2
and 3. Papers
of the (Royal) Niger Company and
of
John Holt and Co. have
been deposited
at
Rhodes House, Oxford; there is
a
full report
on
the
former
by the
Royal Commission
on
Historical
Manuscripts.
For the Gold Coast, Metcalfe provides
a
useful selection
of
documents, chiefly from official records; their political emphasis
is complemented
by
Kay and Hymer's collection
of
economic
source material. For West Africa, Newbury provides few docu-
ments for the period but his statistical appendices are relevant, as
are those
of
Talbot and Helleiner for Nigeria. Official ideas on
colonial government are expounded in Lugard's
Dual mandate
(p.
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