Roberts A.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: from 1905 to 1940
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
8 BRITISH WEST AFRICA AND LIBERIA
887) and compilations for Nigeria by Kirk-Greene (1965, 1972).
Published recollections of the period by former officials are mostly
superficial, but there are thoughtful reflections on Nigeria by
Temple and Crocker; see also the memoirs of Sylvia Leith-Ross.
Two journalists wrote books worth listing here: E. D. Morel,
who visited Nigeria in 1910, and Lethbridge, who toured West
Africa in 1920. Margery Perham recorded her tour of West Africa
in 1931-2. On Liberia, Sibley reports on a tour in about 1925 on
behalf of educationists in the USA; Strong describes social
conditions and customs in the report of the Harvard scientific
expedition of 1926-7; the novelist Graham Greene travelled
through Liberia in 1935. The weekly West Africa, founded in
1917,
provides a conspectus of opinion, black and white, official
and unofficial. Other newspapers, and works by leading African
publicists, such as Danquah and Azikiwe, are cited in the essay
for chapter 5. The reminiscences of Azikiwe and Awolowo shed
light on the period, while those of Okafor-Omali and Akiga offer
valuable impressions of rural Nigeria. Akiga (a Tiv) is represented
in Westermann's collection of African autobiographies (p. 906),
which also includes one from Benin, four from Togo and one from
Sierra Leone. In 1949—50 Mary Smith recorded at length the
autobiography of
a
Hausa woman, Baba, who was a young girl at
the turn of the century. Chinua Achebe's novel Arrow of
God
is set in Ibo country after the First World War.
Introductions to the period may be found in Crowder (1968)
and Ajayi and Crowder (1974). Hopkins (1973) provides a lucid,
illuminating and extensive analysis of economic change during the
period. For other surveys, notably that by R. L. Buell, see works
listed on pp.
882-3.
Much research on the period appears in
the Journal of
the
Historical
Society
of Nigeria and the Transactions
of
the
Historical
Society
of Ghana.
The best general survey of any one territory throughout the
period remains Coleman's study of Nigeria; the period is very
briefly treated in Crowder's Story of
Nigeria
and the histories of
the Gambia by J. M. Gray and H. Gailey. Bourret provides an
introduction to the inter-war years in the Gold Coast. The official
handbooks for the Gold Coast (Maxwell) and Sierra Leone
(Goddard) are useful; the Nigeria handbook (eleventh edition,
1936) is less so, but was supplemented by numerous local
gazetteers compiled by district officials (cf. Kirk-Greene, 1972).
The economic history of British West Africa during our period
833
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
was pioneered
by
McPhee (1926) and Hancock (1942
p.
892),
whose work still repays study; they were followed
by
Bauer's
-classic investigation of oligopoly (1954, p- 891) and by Perham's
collections
of
essays on the economy
of
Nigeria (1946, 1948).
Szereszewski offers
a
perhaps over-ambitious analysis for the Gold
Coast. Ekundare's economic history
of
Nigeria
is
analytically
weak but contains much official data; Howard's contentious study
of the Gold Coast must be handled with care. For the colonial
finances of Sierra Leone, see Cox-George and Sibanda; Kaniki
provides
a
general survey
of
the 1930s. Government economic
management
in
the Gold Coast
is
examined
by
Cox-George,
Bening and Sederberg; Agbodeka and Meredith assess Guggis-
berg's schemes. Carland considers government
finance
in Southern
Nigeria before 1914, and Ikime the finances of native adminis-
tration
in
northern Nigeria. Newbury
(in the
collection
for
Brunschwig: p. 882) considers the economics of amalgamation in
Nigeria. On transport, see Gould (Gold Coast) and Hay, Njoku
and Walker (Nigeria). There is a history, by Fry, of the Bank of
British West Africa,
and
studies
of
currency
in
Nigeria
by
Hopkins and Ofonagoro (see pp. 892, 894). The starting-point for
colonial demographic history remains Kuczynski's sceptical
analysis
of
official statistics. On disease
in
the Gold Coast, see
Scott, Patterson and essays by Brown and Patterson
in
the col-
lection edited by Hartwig and Patterson (listed on p. 892); there
is
a
history, by Schram, of the health services in Nigeria.
Economic historians
of
colonial West Africa have under-
standably concentrated on the production and marketing of the
main cash-crops. Polly Hill's sociological approach
to
cocoa-
farming in the Gold Coast
is
now complemented by Gunnarsson's
quantitative study, while Berry and Hopkins provide specifically
historical studies
of
cocoa-farming
in
Nigeria.
For
cotton-
growing, see Cowley and Nworah (Nigeria), and Dumett (Gold
(Coast); for Tiv benniseed (simsim), Dorward; for groundnuts,
Hogendorn (Nigeria)
and
Jeng (Gambia);
for the
oil-palm,
Ekechi, Martin, Meredith and Usoro (Nigeria) and Makannah
(Sierra Leone);
for
livestock, Patterson (Gold Coast).
On the
growth of co-operatives in Nigeria, see Adedeye. Hopkins (1966,
1977) has examined the careers of African traders and businessmen
in Nigeria and the Gold Coast, while the business activities
of
Duse Mohammed Ali have been studied
by
Duffield (p. 910).
834
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
8 BRITISH WEST AFRICA AND LIBERIA
Fascinating profiles of West African businessmen may be found
in Macmillan's compendium The
red book
of West Africa (1920).
Cocoa hold-ups in the Gold Coast have attracted several historians:
see,
e.g., Milburn, Howard, Ehrler and Miles, and also Southall.
The history of expatriate business in our period is still too little
known. Munro has studied British rubber interests in West Africa
and Newbury the commercial activities
of
the Niger Company;
Ofonogoro has used the John Holt papers. The study
of
the
United Africa Company was pioneered
by
Mars
in
Perham's
collection on Nigeria (1948) but has not been greatly advanced
by Pedler or the histories of Unilever by Wilson and Fieldhouse
(pp.
894, 892). The West African Shipping Conference and Elder
Dempster (the dominant British shipping firm) are better.known
through the work of Leubuscher and Davies (pp. 893, 891). On
tin-mining
in
Nigeria, see Freund; on diamond-mining, Green-
halgh (West Africa) and Kaniki (Sierra Leone); on the search for
petroleum in Nigeria, see Carland.
Cadbury's operations
in
the Gold Coast are the subject
of
a
thesis
by
Southall. Kaniki
and van der
Laan have studied
Lebanese traders
in
Sierra Leone. As for the history
of
African
labour in our period, this too has only recently been undertaken.
In Nigeria,
the
tin-mines have been studied
by
Freund
and
Morrison,
and the
railways
by
Oyemakinde
and
Mason
(in
Gutkind et a/.); for the Gold Coast, there are studies of the gold
mines (Crisp), and forced labour in the north (Thomas). For Sierra
Leone, there are studies
of
official labour policy (Amolo), and
worker protest (Conway and Denzer). The social history of labour
in Nigeria was pioneered by Osoba's article on migration; Igbafe
has written on the transition from domestic slavery in Benin, and
the growth of a working-class
in
Lagos
is
explored by Hughes
and Cohen (in Gutkind et a/.).
The central administration
of
Nigeria has been examined by
White. Hailey's survey of local government in British West Africa
is still useful for reference. The study of indirect rule in Nigeria
may still begin with Perham (1937); see also Bull (in Robinson
and Madden,
p.
890). Nicolson's more recent survey
is
highly
critical
of
Lugard
and his
influence.
For
southern Nigeria,
Tamuno (1972) has studied the early phase of colonial rule and
Adewoye (1977) the judicial system. There are over-respectful
studies of colonial officials in northern Nigeria (Heussler) and the
835
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Gold Coast (Kuklick); and major biographies of Lugard (Perham,
i960) and Guggisberg (Wraith); that
of
Cameron (Gailey)
is
disappointing.
A
biography
of
Clifford,
by
A.
J.
Stockwell,
is
imminent; meanwhile, see Gailey's essay in Gann and Duignan's
African
proconsuls
(p.
883), which also includes an essay on Lugard
by Flint. Tamuno has studied the Nigerian police. Home and
Mohammed consider town planning
in
Nigeria. The colonial
impact
on
indigenous polities
has
attracted much research.
Crowder and Ikime provide some early examples from different
parts of West Africa. For Nigeria, there are studies of the Yoruba
(Asiwaju, Peel), Oyo (Atanda), Benin (Bradbury, Igbafe), Itsekiri
(Ikime), Ibo (Afigbo), Idoma (O'kwu), Tiv (Dorward), Hausa
(Fika, Smith); for the Gold Coast, the Asante (Busia, Tordoff)
and Dagbon (Staniland),
and in
Sierra Leone,
the
Mende
(Abraham). There
are
also several local studies addressed
specifically
to
African protest:
in
Nigeria,
of
Oyo (Atanda),
Abeokuta (Ausman, Gailey), western Ibo (Igbafe), Aba (the Ibo
women's war) (Ifeka-Moller, Van Allen; see also Mba), Satiru
(Adeleye);
in the
Gold Coast, Cape Coast (Shaloff), Akim
Abuakwa and Kwahu (Simensen).
The first studies
of
territorial politics were devoted
to the
legislative councils of Nigeria (Wheare; see also Tamuno, 1966)
and the Gold Coast (Wight; see also Priestley). On the growth
of a modern political elite in the Gold Coast, see Kimble's massive
study; see also Asante, Edsman, Rohdie, Denzer, and Spitzer and
Denzer. Politics in Lagos have been examined by Cole; see also
Tamuno (1975) and Duffield. On Sierra Leone, see Kilson, Spitzer
and Harrell-Bond et
al.
Macaulay, Carr and Casely Hayford are
discussed by July. The West African and international dimensions
of politics during the period are surveyed by Langley; see also
Asante, Geiss (p. 910), Okonkwo, and Kilson (in Rotberg and
Mazrui, p. 883). On the press and its control in Nigeria, see Omu;
for
the
Gold Coast, see Ekwelie, Jones-Quartey, Shaloff and
Twumasi. The only historical survey
of
education throughout
British West Africa (Hilliard) is brief and descriptive. For Sierra
Leone, education
in
our period
is
treated
at
length by Sumner,
but it has still to receive extended treatment in relation to the Gold
Coast
or
Nigeria. There
are
valuable studies
of
important
personalities: Aggrey (Smith, King, pp. 911-12) and, for Nigeria,
Vischer (Graham, p. 897), Carr (Fajana) and Ojo-Cole (Olusanya).
836
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
8 BRITISH WEST AFRICA AND LIBERIA
For Nigerian education see also Allen, Fajana, Gbadamosi
(p.
904), Hubbard (in Brown and Hiskett, p. 882) and Tiben-
derana. For the Gold Coast, see Foster and Thomas. Mba has
studied the political activity of women in southern Nigeria, while
Mann has focused on the female Christian elite in Lagos. Other
studies of the Christian impact on British West Africa during our
period are listed on pp. 895-902. For Nigeria: Ayandele (1966,
1970),
Boer, Cooke, Crampton, Ekechi, Graham, Grimley and
Robinson, Isichei, Jordan, Mitchell, Peel, Tasie, Turner and
Webster. For the Gold Coast: Baeta, Bartels, Breidenbach,
Debrunner, Der, Grau, Jenkins, Mobley, Parsons, N. Smith.
The impact of the First World War on Nigeria has been studied
at length by Osuntokun (1979); on wartime unrest there, see also
Atanda (1969) and Austrian; on demobilisation, Matthews; on the
Gold Coast, see Killingray, Lucas, Cox-George and Gannon; on
Sierra Leone, Cox-George; on the Gambia, Hatton. On West
African carriers, see Killingray and Matthews; on military recruit-
ment in the Gold Coast, Thomas (1975). There is an official
history of the RWAFF by Hay wood and Clarke; on the Nigeria
Regiment, see also Barrett. Studies of the West African campaigns
and their results are cited below.
For contrasting perspectives on the general background to
German West Africa and the British mandates, see works by Gann
and Duignan (p. 888) and by Stoecker (p. 890); see also the
compilation by Gifford and Louis (p. 883); Newbury's contri-
bution to the latter considers the German colonial secretary's tour
of West Africa in
1913.
Military operations in the First World War
are reviewed by Moberly and by Osuntokun. Kuczynski surveys
demographic data for Togo and the Cameroons under German
and British rule.
There are general histories, of Togo by Cornevin, and of the
Cameroons by Mveng and Eyongetah and Brain. The latter rely
heavily on Rudin's classic study of German rule in Kamerun.
Knoll's brief survey of German Togo is superficial; it should be
supplemented by Amenumey, Darkoh and W. D. Smith's essay
on governor Zech in Gann and Duignan (p. 883). Seitz's
voluminous memoirs are listed on p. 966. Economic change in
Kamerun has been carefully studied by Hausen and Wirz; for
studies of Duala, see Austen and Riiger. The plantations are
discussed by Michel, and the health of plantation-workers by
837
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Delancey,
in
Hartwig and Patterson
(cf. p.
892).
On
German
administration, see Chilver (in Gifford and Louis, p. 883) and
Quinn (1972); for biographies of prominent Africans in Kamerun,
Laburthe-Tolra (Julien vol. 5: p. 883); Quinn (1980) and Ritzen-
thaler. The partition of Kamerun is discussed by Osuntokun, and
British administration
by
Chilver
(in
Robinson and Madden,
p.
890), Chilver and Kaberry and Gardinier (in Gifford and Louis,
p.
883). Studies
of
Christian missions
in
Togo (Debrunner,
Miiller) and Kamerun (Berger, Hallden, Lantum) are listed
on
pp.
895-99.
Liberia
The best survey of
the
period remains Buell's
Liberia;
see also his
Native
problem
(p. 882). For more recent studies of Liberia's ex-
ternal relations see Akingbade, Schmokel, Sundiata, Akpan and
Uhomoibhi. Brown remains the best survey of Liberia's economic
history, though there
is a
detailed study
by
Chalk
of
the 1927
Firestone agreement; see also Chaudhuri. Sundiata has examined
the export of Liberian labour to Fernando Po. The politics of the
Americo-Liberian elite are illuminated by Liebenow; its relations
with indigenous societies are examined by Akpan, Davis, Freeman
and Haliburton; for the ethnography, see Schwab (based on a tour
in 1928); and on Christianity, Cason (p. 896).
9. BELGIAN AFRICA
The Belgian Congo
The basic guide to sources is Vellut (1974); see also the ARSOM
Livre
blanc,
Walraet, Bustin (1971) and Stengers (1979). From the
inception of Belgian colonial administration, in 1908, the archival
sources are very rich. They are not, however, very accessible.
In
Zaire, colonial records are dispersed among different government
offices; there
is a
national archives service
but it is
very
short
of
resources. For details, see Jewsiewicki (1980), Harms,
Reefe and Likundoli 4 (1976): Archives et
Documents.
Archives
in
Brussels are described by Dickerman and Northrup. Those of the
central government
of
the Belgian Congo were transferred
at
independence to Brussels, but they are closed to researchers. The
archives
of the
Belgian colonial ministry,
in the
Archives
Africaines, Brussels, are subject to
a
thirty-year rule;
a
guide
is
838
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
9 BELGIAN AFRICA
available from the Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres (van
Grieken-Taverniers). The Musee Royal de FAfrique Centrale,
Tervuren, holds some public records and many private papers,
including those of the Baptist Missionary Society (cf. Luwel,
1954).
On specific mission records, see de Craemer and Raskin (pp.
896,
900); on business records, Peemans and Lefevre. Some of the
most important archives are outside Belgium, for example those
of the Congregation of Propaganda Fide in Rome; Protestant
societies in the USA, Great Britain and Sweden; Tanganyika
Concessions and Lever, in London. The de Ryck collection of
Zaire colonial documents is housed in the Memorial Library,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
There is a considerable literature by residents, visitors and
travellers; cf. Perier. Belgian publications in this category have
so far been little used, while work published elsewhere has been
virtually ignored. For the early 1920s, the accounts by Daye and
Chalux are the best known, but Marcosson, an American
journalist, should also be consulted. Several books resulted from
a tour of research or official enquiry (e.g. de Leener, Wauters (J.
and A.), Anet). Franck (1924) defined colonial policy on retiring
as colonial minister. Ryckmans used the radio in 1934 to tell the
Belgian public about the Congo. The reminiscences of retired civil
servants are useful, though they were often published for
polemical reasons: cf. Bourgeois and Lippens, and also Moulaert
(1950).
Several former magistrates also published memoirs;
Dellicour, Jadot, Segaert. There are few memoirs by Catholic
missionaries (see de Montpellier d'Annevoie); there are more by
Protestants (e.g. Springer), but their primary aim was to raise
funds abroad. Since the managerial personnel of the Belgian
Congo continued to be international in composition throughout
the 1920s, even their published records must be sought all over
Europe and North America.
There is a large unpublished secondary literature. Our period
has been studied in over a hundred
memoires de licence
presented
by students in the history department, Faculte de Lettres,
Universite Nationale de Zaire (UNAZA), Lubumbashi. They may
be consulted only there, though some have been deposited at the
Bibliotheque Africaine, Brussels. Several relevant
memoires
and
theses have also been submitted to the Universite Catholique de
Louvain (UCL) and the Universite Libre de Bruxelles (ULB);
839
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
these
may be
consulted locally under certain conditions. Lists
of
unpublished
me'moires
and
theses
by
Zairians have appeared
in
Likundoli
and
Kecherches
^airoses;
recent research
in
Zaire
has
been
described
by
Verhaegen (1977).
There
are
several periodicals specialising
in
the
Zaire region
which have published
the
results
of
research
on our
period. From
Lubumbashi: Etudes
d
'histoire
africaine, Likundo/i (serie Enquetes
and serie Archives), Problemes sociaux
%airois
(Bulletin CEPSE).
From Kinshasa: Zaire-Afrique,
Cahiers des religions
a/ricaines,
Etudes
%airoises
(1968—1973:
Cahiers %airois de
la recherche
et du developpement),
Cahiers
e'conomiques
et
sociaux.
From Brussels: Cahiers
de
CEDAF,
Bulletin
de
I'ARSOM.
From Louvain: Cultures
et
developpement,
Enquetes
et
documents
d'histoire
africaine.
From Tervuren: Afrique-
Tervuren. Fundamental sources
for
both
the
Belgian Congo
and
Ruanda-Urundi
are the
newspapers
of
the period,
in
Belgium
and
Africa
(cf.
Berlage),
and
contemporary journals specialising
in
colonial questions
(e.g.
Congo
(1920—40), Bulletin des jurisdictions
indigenes (1933—64), Bulletin
de
I'lnstitut Royal Colonial Beige
(1930—57),
L.e
Trait
d''union
(1932—
),
Bulletin
de la
Societe Beige
d'Etudes
et
d'Expansion (1907-
),
Bulletin agricole
du
Congo
(1910-61),
as
well
as the
numerous missionary journals.
As general works
of
reference,
the
compilations produced
by
the British Admiralty
in
1919 and 1944 are
still useful;
see
also
the Encyclopedic, Franck, (1930)
and the
Essor
e'conomique
beige.
Hostelet is
of
little value for our period. The ARSOM Livre
blanc
comprehensively summarises colonial activities and the growth of
knowledge.
The
most recent general histories
of
Zaire
are by
Tshimanga and Cornevin; more useful
for
our period are older
works by Anstey and Merlier. Since 1970, there has been so much
research on our period that
a
new attempt
at
synthesis is needed;
articles by Vellut (1975) and Jewsiewicki (1976) indicate possible
new directions. For the Belgian background, there is a collection
of essays
by
specialists (Bartier
et
al.), which includes
one by
Stengers
on
Belgium and the Congo.
As yet, there are no published surveys of the period for specific
regions
in
terms
of
territory rather than tribe.
It
would
be
most
interesting
to
focus work on the ' natural' regions
of
the colonial
economy, which straddled territorial frontiers: e.g. the copperbelt
of Katanga/Northern Rhodesia; Kivu/Uganda; Bas-Congo/
French Congo; Kasai/Northern Angola. For Katanga, a start has
840
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
9 BELGIAN AFRICA
been made by Perrings; see also Fetter. The problems of urban
history are discussed by de Saint-Moulin; there are studies of
Leopoldville (Whyms), Elisabethville (Cornet, 1961) and Stanley-
ville (Verhaegen).
The economic history of our period is now comparatively well
understood. Much of the best work is focused on Katanga, but
recent research has advanced our knowledge of other areas.
Peemans has made an excellent analytical survey of the colonial
economy; see also his contribution to Duignan and Gann (p. 891),
and Vandewalle and Jewsiewicki (1976, 1977). Jewsiewicki and
Vellut have written on Katanga for Palmer and Parsons (p. 894)
and on agriculture and mining for Birmingham and Martin (p.
882).
Fieldhouse has outlined the history of the HCB (p. 892); see
also Nicolai. The economics of industrialisation have been studied
by Gouverneur (who is chiefly concerned with UMHK; see also
George and Gouverneur). For transport, see Huybrechts and
Lederer; Katzenellenbogen has studied the diplomacy of railway
investment. The growth of a proletariat among Africans working
both for UMHK and on the copper-mines of Northern Rhodesia
has been analysed by Perrings, who relates this to changes in
mining technology and strategies for the deployment of labour,
as well as to the rural economy; see also Higginson. There are
studies of Kasai (Tshundolela Epanya), compulsory cultivation
(Mulambu-Mbvuluya) and the upper Uele (including the Kilo-
Moto gold mines) (Bakonzi). In general, however, much work
remains to be done on the colonial labour market: Lux provides
an introduction, while UNAZA
memoires
contain much detailed
information that calls for synthesis. For agricultural history, see
also Miracle, Cornet (1965) and the jubilee volume of the
bulletin
agricole.
For the economic history of Belgium during our period, see
Baudhouin. The role of the colonial economy in Belgium, and that
of the Belgian economy in the Congo, require further investiga-
tion; a beginning has been made by Stengers and by Joye and
Lewin, followed by recent UCL
memoires
prompted by Vellut; see
also Vanderlinden, and van der Straeten on Jules Cousin. As for
work by colonial writers, Delcommune's is a massive piece of
special pleading, but there is much of value in later work, despite
its biases: e.g.
Essor
e'conomique
beige,
Mottoule, van de Putte.
Colonial medical services have been described by Dubois and
841
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
Duren, but the historical study of public health, as of nutrition
and food supply,
has
only just begun
(cf.
Lyons); Schwetz
provides a valuable starting-point, and see also Cornet
(1971).
For
early ventures into
the
historical study
of
systems
of
food
production, see Jewsiewicki (1975, 1979); for the demographic
history of our period, see Sabakinu and UNAZA
memoires.
The international significance of the Belgian Congo, up to 1914,
is discussed
by
Cookey and Willequet (pp. 884, 886); colonial
frontiers have been examined by Jentgen (p. 885). Reberioux has
looked
at
socialist reactions
in
Belgium
to
its take-over
of
the
Congo. For the study
of
metropolitan doctrine and policy, the
foundations have been laid
by
Stengers
(cf.
memoires
of
UCL,
ULB).
At the level of African realities, as shaped by local political
structures and European pressures (business, the church, etc.),
useful work
has
been done
by
Bishikwabo (1975), Bustin,
Depelchin, Dimandja, MacGaffey (1970), Nicolai, Salmon, Smith,
Turner, Vansina (1969, 1972) and others. However, the broad
spectrum of administrative institutions has been analysed only at
either extremity: the metropole (Lutumba, Vanhove,
memoires
of
UCL, ULB), and the
territoire
(sub-district) (UNAZA
memoires).
In between,
a
great gulf encompasses the government-general,
provinces, districts and consultative bodies (though provincial
councils have been studied in UNAZA
memoires).
For studies of
African administration
by
colonial officials,
see
Grevisse and
Guebels; for a partial view of Belgian administrators, see Cornet
(1971);
there
are
essays
on two
governors-general
-
Rutten
(Fetter) and Ryckmans (Norton) in the collection edited by Gann
and Duignan (p.
883).
For contemporary studies of legislation and
administrative structures,
see
Baumer, Heyse, Magotte
and
Sourdillat. The participation
of
Congolese forces
in the
First
World War was recorded by Moulaert, Muller and the Belgian
official war history.
Contributions
to
social history include rural studies
by
Mulambu and Sikitele, and urban studies by Fetter (1974) and
Sabakinu. For reflections on the growth of ethnic identities, see
Mumbanza. The social history of Europeans in Belgian Africa and
its metropolitan circles awaits serious investigation, though
relevant points may be gathered from Stengers, Fetter (1976) and
Jewsiewicki (1979). Research on education has been pioneered by
Feltz (on rural mission schools) and Dimandja (on Methodist
842
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008