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Giessibl F.J. Advances in atomic force microscopy
Review of Mode Physics, volume 75, july 2003 p.1-35

This article reviews the progress of atomic force microscopy in ultrahigh vacuum, starting with its
invention and covering most of the recent developments. Today, dynamic force microscopy allows us to image surfaces of conductors and insulators in vacuum with atomic resolution. The most widely used technique for atomic-resolution force microscopy in vacuum is frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy (FM-AFM). This technique, as well as other dynamic methods, is explained in detail in this article. In the last few years many groups have expanded the empirical knowledge and deepened our theoretical understanding of frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy.
Consequently spatial resolution and ease of use have been increased dramatically. Vacuum atomic
force microscopy opens up new classes of experiments, ranging from imaging of insulators with true
atomic resolution to the measurement of forces between individual atoms.
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