Bayer R.G. Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing, Revised and Expanded

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a Taber Abraser (ASTM D1044) (Fig. 9.94) correl ate well with the Brush Test (105). The

test with the Taber Abraser provides a dry, two-body abrasive wear condition.

The common or basic element in these two tests is a mild abrasive wear, which appears to be

the controlling factor in this type of application. This is to be expected since corrosive wear

should not be a signiﬁcant element in the wear of these coating materials in these

applications, based on their properties.

9.3.9. Drill Wear Tests

Controlled drilling is a frequently used approach to address drill wear concerns

(106,107). These tests consist of sequential hole drilling in a control led work piece at a

controlled speed, depth, and feed rate. The number of holes that can be drilled before fail-

ure determines the wear life of the drill. Several criteria for failure are used, depending

somewhat on the type of drilling being done. One general type of criteria is the quality

of the hole being drilled including hole dimensions, hole appearance, smear, and rough-

ness. Periodic measurements or inspection of the holes are performed with these type of

criteria. Another type of criteria is associated with various attributes of the drilling

Figure 9.94 A commercial version of a Taber Abraser is shown in ‘‘A’’. ‘‘B’’ shows examples of the

wear scar produced in the test. (From Ref. 104, reprinted with permission from ASTM.)

processes. For example, the occurrence of squealing might be used to determine drill life.

Other criteria could be the occurrence of chatter, increased torque, temperature or drill

fracture. With all these criteria, drilling is continued until the event occurs and the number

of operations is used as a measure of performance. Frequently, several of these criteria

might be used with the nature of the failure changing with the drilling conditions or drill.

Tests of this nature are very operational in character, deﬁning wear life in terms of

the number of holes that can be successfully drilled rather than directly in terms of wear.

In fact, there are several wear points or zones associated with drills. The wear conditions

can be different at these points, and the wear at these points can have a diffe rent effect on

Figure 9.95 Twist drill geometry and location of wear zones. (From Ref. 107, reprinted with

permission from ASME.)

Figure 9.96 Wear curves for ﬂank wear of twist drills. (From Ref. 105.)

performance. For example, the geometry of a twist drill, with the different wear zones

identiﬁed,isshowninFig.9.95

. The wear in each of these zones can also be addressed with

these tests, in addition to the overall wear behavior. Since the geometry of these regions

is complex, qualitative techniques are frequently used to evaluate the wear, such as SEM

and optical microscopy. Sometimes a linear dimension, such as scar width, can be

used to quantify the wear. Some quantitative wear data for ﬂank wear are shown in

Fig.9.96

,andsomeSEMmicrographsofdrillwearscarsarepresentedinFig.9.97.

These tests are used not only to compare materials but also to investigate a wide vari-

etyofparametersassociatedwithdrillsanddrilling.Forexampledrillspeed,various

dimensions and angles of the drill, hole thickness, and work piece properties are para-

meters, which can be studied and evaluated in these tests. Some data from these types

ofstudiesareshowninFigs.9.98

and9.99, illustrating the way the data are analyzed

and presented with these types of tests.

Figure 9.97 Examples of the wear of twist drills. (From Ref. 106, reprinted with permission from

ASME.)

Figure 9.98 The effect of drill speed on drill life when drilling two different materials. (From

Ref. 107.)

Figure 9.99 The effect of different drill material on drill life. A statistical measure is used to

quantify performance in this case. (From Ref. 107.)

9.3.10. Seal Wear Tests

There are several aspects of the wear of seals that are of signiﬁcance. One is directly related

to materials loss (e.g., changes in dimensions and clearances). Another is changes in

surface roughness, and the third can be the formation of trans fer or third body ﬁlms. All

three can individually and jointly inﬂuence sealing and cause functional failure, namely

leakage. All of these aspects can be inﬂuenced by the operational conditions associated

with the applic ation. Because of this complex relationship between wear and function,

it is desirable to evaluate seal wear under highly simulative conditions in an operational

type test (108). An example of this type of test is one that was used to investigate

seals for Stirling engines (109).

Across-sectionofthetestapparatusisshowninFig.9.100

. It replicates the sealing

conditions of the engine rod, with the exception that inert gas at a ﬁxed pressure is used to

simulate the conditions in the combustion chamber. The ﬁxed pressure is selected to be

representative of the average pressure in the chamber under some generic operating con-

ditions (e.g., highw ay or urban travel conditions). The other parameters, such as rpm,

stroke length, speed, and temperature, are selected to be representative of the application

and can be varied to represent different conditions of operation . The apparatus can

accommodate different materials and design parameters. It was also designed so that

leakage measurements, as well as seal temperature measurements, could be made. Thus,

this apparatus can be used in the evaluation of a wide range of material, design, and use

factors in terms of their effects on seal wear performance.

Figure 9.100 Diagram of an apparatus used to evaluate the wear of seal material. (From Ref. 134,

reprinted with permission from ASME.)

The basic methodology of the test is to run the apparatus for a speciﬁc length of time

and to monitor leakage and tempe rature during that period. At the end of the complete

test duration, the samples are removed and examined for wear. This included proﬁlometer

measurements of roughness, mass loss of the seals, and other characterizations of the rub-

bing surfaces, such as optical and SEM examinations. The type of quantitative data gen-

eratedinthistestisshowninTable9.8

. Leakage is considered to be the primary criteria

for wear. The other measurements and observations aid in identifying the particular fail-

ure mode and differences in wear behavior. For example, in this study, it was concluded

that the plasma-sprayed Mo coating performed the best, primarily because it maintained

its roughness and allowed the formation of a very stable polytetraﬂuoroethene (PTFE)

transfer ﬁlm.

While this test provides good simulation of most of the aspects and allows wear phe-

nomena to be correlated with performance (i.e., leakage), it does not provide complete

simulation. Combustion doe s not occur, only the mean pressure of the duty cycle is simu-

lated. As a consequence, this test is used to select material and design parameters for eva-

luation in a more simulative test in a laboratory engine. At the same time, more

phenomenological type wear tests are used to identify promising candidates for this inter-

mediate seal test (110). This is an example of a staged or multilevel testing program, with

each level serving as a screen for selecting material s for the next and more simulative test.

9.3.11. Wear Test for a Magnetic Sensor

In this application, pieces of encoded magnetic tape are attached to or mounted on a vari-

ety of items, such as boxes, pack ages, or routing documents. To read the information, a

Table 9.8 DataObtainedinSealwearTestUsedtoSimulate the Stirling Engine Application

Rod surface

Time

(hr)

Rod

temp.

(



leakage

(1=hr)

Initial

roughness

mm)

Final

roughness

mm)

Hardness

(HV 1)

Wear

rate

(mg=h) Comments

Nitrided Steel 78 55 1.3 0.06 0.03 1127 0.105

88 71 2.8 0.25 0.09 1162 0.132

70 47 7.3 0.04 0.14

1132 0.250 Wavy

Plasma sprayed 71 64 2.1 0.22 0.18 530 0.107

molybdenum 70 67 2.9 0.21 0.31 589 0.110

70 74 1.7 0.24 0.18 620 0.117

Plasma sprayed 71 47 3.1 0.26 0.09 708

0.086 Uncertain

aluminium

oxide

70 51 4.9 0.43 0.26 680 0.033

Plasma sprayed

chromium

oxide

70 58 13.6 0.65 0.55 617 0.343

Nedox 70 56 14.9 0.22

739 0.409 Very Wavy

Hard chromium

on zinc

70 56 13.1 0.31 0.01 1039 0.554

Seal material: Rulon LD.

Source: Ref. 134.

magnetic head or sensor is pressed up against the surface of the tape section with a hand-

held scanner and moved across the surface of the tape. A use for such a scanner is at the

checkout station of a retail store, serving a simila r purpose to the bar code readers found

in many supermarkets. However, the magnetic tape may contain more information than

provided by the bar code. Another use is to monitor the ﬂow of materials through a man-

ufacturing plant. In this case, the magnetic code not only provides infor mation regarding

identiﬁcation but also about processing steps, etc. The scanning situation in these types of

applicationsisillustratedinFig.9.101

, along with a diagram of the magnetic head that

was used.

The basic wear situation is similar to but signiﬁcantly different than that encountered

with more typical uses of magnetic tape (e.g., tape recorder and memory tape drives). Both

are concerned with the wear of the head by the magnetic tape, but there are differences in

speed and relative usage. Surface speeds are higher in magnetic recording. In both the head

surface experiences the greater amount of sliding but the tape surface experiences much

less use in this application than in recording and data storage applications. However,

the major difference is that in tape recorders and drives, the tape surface is relatively clean.

This is not the case in this sensor application since the tape surfaces are exposed to a wide

variety of environments, some of whi ch are quite dirty and contain very abrasive materi-

als. Examples of these types of environments would be that of an open manufa cturing or

machining area, or receiving and shipping bays. Sand, iron oxide particles, aluminum

oxide grit, and other abrasive particles are common in these environments (111). The

abrasive action of these particles collected by the tape surfaces can become the primary

Figure 9.101 ‘‘A’’ illustrates the use of a magnetic hand scanner in reading stored information on

magnetic strips located on labels, cards, and documents. ‘‘B’’ shows the design of the sensor in the

region of the magnetic head.

wear mode, masking the effect of the tape itself. Figure 9.102 shows the effect that contam-

ination can have on the wear of these sensors. To address this wear situation, a wear

test was developed that utilizes the drum conﬁguration discussed previously in the

section on phenomenological tests (Sec. 9.2.12) (42).

The drum test conﬁguration was selected for the same reason that it was developed

to address wear by paper and ribbon, namely that the tape surface wears more readily than

the heads. In this use of the device, the magnetic tape is wrapped around the surface of the

drum, and the magnetic head replaces the normal spherical wear specimen. To simulate

the action of the abrasive contamination of the tape surface in the application, the surface

of the tape is coated with different types and amounts of abrasive particles. This simu-

lation was veriﬁed early in the development of the test by comparing wear scars produced

in the ﬁeld to those produced in the test for a variety of abrasive dust co atings on the

surfaceofthetape.Figure9.103

shows such a comparison. It was concluded that several

methods of coating could be used to provide simulation, and that the primary reason for

selectingoneortheotherwascontrolandeaseofapplication.AspraycoatingofAC

Fine

Test Dust, which is mainly sand (SiO

), and gelatin were selected for this purpose. This

technique provided a uniform coating of a brasive particles protruding above the surface

Figure 9.102 The effect of abrasive contamination on the wear of the magnetic head. (From Ref.

135.)

Figure 9.103 ‘‘A’’ shows an example of the wear morphology found on heads worn in ﬁeld tests.

‘‘B’’ and ‘‘C’’ show examples of the morphology obtained in laboratory tests on tape surfaces con-

taminated with abrasives. (From Ref. 135, reprinted with permission from Elsevier Sequoia S.A.)

of the gelatin (Fig. 9.104). Tests were done to investigate the possible inﬂuence that the

gelatin might have on the wear. This was done by comparing wear behavior with this type

of coating to those without the gelatin, that is dust coated tapes. No difference was found.

Wear was found to depend solely on the amount, size, and nature of the

abrasives on the surface. This is probably because the gelatin layer is weak, allowing easy

movement of the particles, and thin enough not to mask or bury the particles. The gelatin

layer is less than 2 mm, while approximately 80% of the sand particles are greater than

2 mm. To insure consistency of these coati ngs a short test, which utilized only a small

portion of the tape, was conducted with a 52100 steel ball on each coated tape. If the

amount of wear in this test fell outside an acceptable range, the tape was not used.

Within the acceptable range, these same results provided a means to scale the individual

tests to improve resolution.

As was described in Sec. 9.2.12, the wear specimen moves across the surface of the

drum in an axial direction while the drum rotates, producing a helical path on the surface

of the drum. A high enough axial speed for the specimen can insure that the specimen is

always sliding on a new or fresh tape surface. Such a condition was used for most of the

evaluations done with this test. This eliminated the complexities introduced by changes in

the abrasive characteristics of the tape surface with wear. It also provided a worst case

situation, since the abrasivity of both the uncoated and coated tape surfaces tend to

decrease with wear. A standard drum rotational speed was also selected with two concerns

in mind. One was to maintain simulation. The other was to reduce test time. Similar wear

behavior was observed for surface speeds up to 300 cm=sec; however, testing with abrasive

coatings at the higher speeds produced temperature increases which were beyond those

found in the application. As a result, a speed more representative of the application and

one which did not produce a signiﬁcant temperature rise was selected. The drum rotational

speed selected was 36 cm=sec and the specimen speed was 0.25 mm=rev or 0.02 mm= sec.

A gimbal-spring loaded mounting was used for the magnetic head in the application.

This insured that even though the sensor was hand-held a consistent load and proper

orientation would occur at the head=tape interface. A limited amount of testing was done

to characterize wear behavior as a function of load. However, the majority of the tests,

particularly those done to evaluate materials and design options, were done using the load

in the application, 50 gm.

The relative wear performance of the heads was measured in terms of the amount of

sliding under standard test conditions that was required to produce a 5-ohm change in the

resistance of the magnetic element, located beneath the surface (see Fig. 9.101). The 5-ohm

Figure 9.104 Examples of contaminated tape surfaces after a wear test. In ‘‘A’’, the tape was

coated with loose AC Fine Test Dust. In ‘‘B’’, the tape was coated with a mixture of AC Fine Test

Dust and gelatin. (From Ref. 135, reprinted with permission from Elsevier Sequoia S.A.)

change was a functional criteria for the device. Thi s was accomplished by monitoring this

resistance during the test and stopping the test when a change equal to or greater than

5 ohms occurred. An automatic system was developed for this. In these tests, as well as

in the ﬁeld, a 5-ohm change could be caused by several different phenomena which could

occur in the abrasive environment. This included gradual wear of the surfaces down to the

magnetic element, micro- and macro-fracture down to the element, and penetration by

abrasive particles of the seam between the two halves. These conditions are illustrated

inFig.9.105

. In most cases a combination of gradual wear, micro-fracture of the edges,

and penetration determined life. The relative contribution of each was assessed at the

end of the test by optical and SEM microscopy, and proﬁlometer measurements. The pro-

ﬁlometer measurements were also used to estimate wear volume, which was normalized

with load and distance of sliding to provide a wear coefﬁcient for the material and abra-

sive condition. With these types of tests, the evaluations of a wide variety of design and

manufacturing aspects were addressed. These included radius, load, magnetic element

location, material selection, adhesive thickness, deposition techniques for the magnetic

element, grinding and polishing of the head, environmental effects, and orientation of

the seam with sliding direction. The test was also used to precondition heads in a

controlled manner for use in corrosion evaluations.

Figure 9.105 Illustrations of the wear conditions found on heads.