Birch Barbara M. English L2 Reading: Getting to the Bottom
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178
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mowed
[mow:d]
moat
[mowt]
snag
[snae:g]
snack
[snae:k]
lube
[luw:b]
loop
[luwp]
EXERCISE
6:
PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION
A.
Using what
you
have learned about phonemes
and
allophones,
identify
which
of
these
are
phonemic transcriptions
by
putting
/ /
around them
and
which
are
phonetic transcriptions
by
putting
[ ]
around them.
Identify
the
word.
There
may be
some ambiguity
in
some answers;
if so,
point them out.
t
h
iy:m
tim
ret
red
rey:Dar
reder
reter
mid mit
miy:d
miyt
h
miy?
B.
Write
the
following
words
in
phonetic
and
phonemic transcription.
Note
that aspiration
can
occur
in
syllable-initial consonant clusters
with
voiceless
stops,
such
as
pi,
pr, kr,
kl,
and tr.
bleed
bleat
clothe
crude
clad
clatter
critter
C.
How
important
is the
phonemic transcription
to our
ideas
of
what
ESL
learners should know
for
various
skills?
How
important
is the
phonetic transcription
to our
ideas
of
what
ESL
learners should
know
for
various
skills?
EXERCISE
7:
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES (PART
2)
So
far we
have talked about several phonological processes that occur
in
English
and in
this
exercise
we
will
learn about
a few
more.
One
general
process
is
called
assimilation.
We say
that assimilation
has
taken place when
two
sounds
which
are
near each
other
become more similar
to
each other
in
terms
of
voicing, place,
or
manner
of
articulation.
A.
Here
are
some examples
of
assimilation.
Identify
whether
they
seem
to be
assimilating
in
voicing
or
place
of
articulation.
a.
input
[imput]
b.
income
[irjkAm]
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179
c.
escaped
[cskeypt]
d.
Chomsky
[tjampskiy]
B.
A
special type
of
assimilation
is
called
palatalization,
in
which
a
stop
or
fricative
becomes palatalized
in
some environments. Explain
where
the
palatalization occurs
in
each word set.
Do you see
some
generalizations
in
this process?
a.
innate
b.
press
c.
definition
d.
cult
e.
permit
f.
rate
g.
provide
h.
act
native
depression
define
culture
permissive
ratio
proviso
actual
nature
depressive
definite
cultural
permission
ration
provision
action
C.
Another phonological process
is
called
velar
softening,
in
which
/k/
and
/g/
become "softened"
to /S/ or
/d3/.
Pick
out
where
the
velar
softening
has
occurred
in
these word sets.
Then
make
any
general-
izations
you can
about
the
process.
a.
analog analogy
b.
electric
electrician
electricity
c.
colleague collegial college
d.
mag- (bound root) magic
e.
log- (bound root) logic
(socio)logy
f.
automatic automation
automaticity
D.
Vowel
reduction
occurs when
vowels
are so
lacking
in
stress that they
are
pronounced
as a
schwa
[a].
Where
has
vowel reduction
oc-
curred?
a.
parade
[pereyd]
b.
laboratory
[laebretoriy]
c.
telegraph
[t
clagraefj
d.
telegraphy
[t
elegrafiy]
e.
police
[psliys]
EXERCISE
8:
MORPHOPHONOLOGICAL
PROCESSES
AND
SPELLING PATTERNS
If
English writing
were
truly alphabetic,
the
changes
that
occur
in the
pro-
nunciation
of
word derived
by
adding
suffixes,
as
shown
in the
last exercise,
would
mean that words like native, nation,
and
national, would
not
look
the
same.
In a
consistent alphabetic writing system, where
one
symbol would
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represent
one
sound,
it is
possible that native would
be
written naitiv, nation
would
be
written naishun,
and
national would
be
written nashunl. However,
English
has
taken another course. English writing
has
another principle
which
governs these cases:
the
morphemic principle.
This
principle states
that morphemes
will
maintain their visual appearance
no
matter
how
their
pronunciations change because
of
phonological processes like assimilation,
palatalization,
vowel
reduction,
and so on.
Although this principle doesn't
always
hold,
it has a
strong consistency.
Given
the
morphemic principle,
we are
still faced with
a
quandary.
Which
of
the
pronunciations
of a
morpheme
is
basic? Which
is the one to
represent
consistently,
if
there
are
alternatives? Certain procedures have evolved
in an-
swer
to
this question.
We try to
maintain
the
spelling
of the
tense
vowel
or
diphthong,
the
"hardest" consonant,
and
include graphemes that
are
pro-
nounced
in
some words
but are
silent
in
other words.
1
.
To
write
a
morpheme consistently
in
spite
of
variations
in
pronun-
ciation,
the
spelling that represents
a
tense vowel
or
diphthong
is
basic.
Similarly,
always
represent
the
original vowel although
it may
be
"reduced"
to
[a]
with
a
change
of
stress.
Examples:
protest
—
prgtestant
[protest]
[pratsstant]
because
/o/ is
tense
and
/a/
is
lax.
sacrifice
—
sacrificial
[ssekrifays]
[sseknfifl]
2.
We
assume that stops
are
"harder" than
fricatives
and
fricatives
are
harder than
affricates.
Choose
the
stop rather than
the
fricative,
and
the
fricative
rather
than
the
affricate
to
represent
in the
spelling.
Examples:
analog
—
analogy
[aensbg]
[aenaebdsi]
because
/g/ is a
stop
and
/dy
is an
affricate.
physifi
—
physicist
—
physician
[fiziks]
[fizisist]
[fizi^An]
because
the
letter
c
represents
the
stop
/k/
and the
other alterna-
tives
are
fricative
[s] or
affricate
[$].
refrigerate
—
refrigeration
[rsfridssret]
[rsfnd^sre
J
An]
because
/t/
is a
stop
and /
J/
is an
affricate.
depress
—
depression
[dspres]
[dapre
$ An]
because
/s/
is a
fricative
and
/$/
is an
affricate.
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181
B.
Choose
the
most complete spelling, that
is, the
spelling that
in-
cludes
all
sounds although they
may be
silent
in
some words.
Examples:
paradigm—paradigmatic
because
the/g/
is
pronounced
in
paradigmatic,
it
must
be
written
in the
word paradigm
to
preserve
the
most
complete representation
of the
morpheme.
iamb—iambic
because
the
/b/
is
pronounced
in
iambic,
it
must
be
written
in
iamb.
Exercises
A.
Match
the
justification
(tense
vowel
or
diphthong,
stop
>
fricative
>
affricate,
or
most complete spelling) with
the
pronunciation
and
spelling
difficulty
in the
following
word sets. Some words
may
have
more than
one
justification.
a.
domestic—domesticity
b.
phlegm—phlegmatic
c.
severe—severity
d.
define—definite
e.
electric—electricity
f.
confess—confession
g.
bomb—bombard
h.
signature—sign
B.
Find
two
original examples
for
each
of the
morphemic spelling
principles.
C.
English writing
has
been called
morphophonemic.
What does this
mean?
D.
These
are
counterexamples
to the
morphemic principle. Explain
how
they
are
exceptions.
a.
goose—gosling
b.
maintain—maintenance
c.
pronounce—pronunciation
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EXERCISE
9:
GRAPHEMES: PROBABILITIES
AND
RIMES
In
teaching reading, teachers sometimes distinguish between words that
follow
spelling patterns
and
those that
don't.
Words that have
irregular
spellings
are
called
sight
words
and
they
are
commonly taught
as
whole
words
that must
be
memorized.
Here
are
some words
from
common sight
word
lists. Divide them into categories
of (a)
true
sight words,
(b)
words that
are
probably
not
true sight words based
on the
probabilities,
(c)
words that
could
be
taught
as a
common rime pattern,
or (d)
words that could
be
taught
as
compound words.
above
across
again
aisle
answer
anxious
any
bear
beautiful
because
been
behind
believe
bind
both
bough
bread
break
bright
brought
build
built
bury
busy
buy
calf
captain
caught
chief
child
clothes
colt
coming
cough
dead
deaf
debt
desire
do
does
done
don't
double
doubt
dove
dozen
early
earn
eight
enough
eye
father
fence
field
fight
find
folks
four
freight
friend
front
garage
get
ghost
give
gloves
gone
great
head
heart
heaven
heavy
here
high
idea
Indian
instead
isle
key
kind
knee
knew
knife
know
language
laugh
laughed
leather
library
light
lion
live
lived
love
machine
many
measure
might
mild
million
mind
minute
neighbor
neither
night
none
ocean
of
office
often
oh
once
one
onion
only
other
ought
patient
piece
pretty
pull
purpose
push
put
quiet
ranger
ready
really
right
rough
said
says
school
science
scissors
sew
soldier
some
someone
something
sometime
son
soul
special
spread
square
steak
straight
sure
sword
their
there
they
though
thought
to
together
ton
tongue
too
touch
two
use
usual
vein
very
view
was
wash
weather
wolf
woman
women
won
would
wrong
you
young
your
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183
could
guard mischief shoe were
couple guess mother should what
cousin
guest move sign
who
cruel
guide
Mr.
snow
wild
curve
have Mrs.
soften
wind
EXERCISE
10:
ONSETS
AND
RIMES
One
strategy that
appears
to
develop
in
English-speaking
readers
is
that
of
reasoning
by
analogy
to try to
pronounce
a new
word found
in
reading.
If
you
can
pronounce
a new
word, even imperfectly,
it
helps
you
decide
if you
know
the
word
in
your productive oral vocabulary
or if you
have heard
the
word
in
your receptive vocabulary.
If so, you may
already have
a
lexical
en-
try
for the
word
in
your mental lexicon
to
which
you can
attach additional
information
about
the
visual image
of the
word
or
about
the
meaning
as en-
countered
in the
reading.
If,
after trying
to
figure
out the
pronunciation,
you
still
don't know what
the
word
is, you can
begin
to
form
a new
lexical
en-
try
with
the
visual
and
auditory image
you
have formed
in
response
to the
unknown
word
and you can
start making connections
to
meaning
from
the
information
in the
passage.
An
additional strategy, then,
is to
guess
the
meaning
from
context.
A.
(a.) Separate these words into their component onsets
and
rimes
and find
word that
are
likely
to be
known
to ESL
readers
that
can
serve
for
reasoning
by
analogy,
(b.)
Then
list context clues that
as-
sist
in
forming
a
meaning,
(c.) Write
any
additional information
that
you
might tell students
to
help them
with
this word
and
with
other words
in
general,
(d.) Does
the
onset
or
rime strategy seem
to
help
with
this word? Follow
the
following
example:
1.
(From label) Apply
deodorant
topically
under
arms
for
all-day pro-
tection.
a.
deodorant Syllables:
de - o - der - ant
Onsets
and
rimes: Analogies:
d / e me
/
o no
d/er
her
/ ant
plant
b.
Context clues: something
you can
apply;
you
apply
it
under
your
arms;
it
protects you.
c.
-ant
as a
suffix
is
usually unstressed
and
pronounced
[-ant].
d.
yes.
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2.
Before
1965,
no
financial
transactions
were possible
for
women
with-
out
their husband's consent.
3.
Newspapers used
to
carry
sex-segregated
help-wanted ads.
4. Few
women held
prominent
positions
in
medicine, law,
or
politics.
5.
No
women
anchored
the
news programs
on
television.
EXERCISE
11:
INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES
English
does
not use
inflectional morphology very much. Following
are the
inflectional
morphemes:
Nouns:
-s
marks
the
regular
plural—He
needed
two
books.
-s
marks
the
possessive form (especially
of
animate
things)—
The
dog's
dish
is
empty.
Verbs:
-s
marks
the
third
person
singular present
tense—He
wants
the
newspaper,
-ed
marks
the
past tense
for
regular
verbs—He
wanted
the
newspaper,
-ed
marks
the
past participle
for
regular
verbs—He
has
studied
in
Canada
for
years.
An
allomorph,
-en, marks
the
past participle
for
many irregu-
lar
verbs—He
has
spoken French since
then,
-ing
marks
the
present participle
for all
verbs—He
is
learning
Japanese.
Adjectives
&:
Adverbs:
-er
marks
the
comparative
form—He
has
bought
the
newer car.
-est marks
the
superlative
form—He
can't
afford
the
newest car.
a.
Examine
the
following data about
the
plural
-s
suffix
(mor-
pheme)
and
answer
the
questions that
follow:
decks
maps boxes cats dogs
ditches
fads
tabs
hills
rivers
dishes
buses
cuffs
coves combs
1.
How
many spellings
are
there
for
this morpheme?
2.
What three pronunciations
are
there
for
this morpheme?
(These
are
called
allomorphs.
Can you
define this term?)
3.
List
the
words
in
three
columns based
on the
pronunciation
of the
suffix.
List
both
the
singular
and
plural words.
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185
4.
Can you
identify
the
phonetic property shared
by the
final
sounds
of
each
of the
singular words
in
each columns?
5.
If I
said there
was a
phonological process called
Voicing
Assimilation,
would
that help explain what
is
going
on
here?
6. If I
said there
was a
phonological process called
Dissimilation,
would
that
help explain some
of
what
is
going
on
there?
7.
Does this example
follow
the
morphemic principle
of
English
writ-
ing,
that morphemes
are
written
the
same
no
matter
how
they
change
in
pronunciation?
Using
these
sets
of
data, answer
the
same
set of
questions:
Dave's
Max's
Jeb's
leaves
confesses
logs
waited
snored
fogged
Bill's
Matt's
Rap's
dents
clutches
spills
needed
mapped
spilled
Fred's
Jeff's
Mary's
relaxes
robs
plays
learned
cracked
played
Ross's
Doug's
Jennifer's
spends
sniffs
draws
saved
noted
wanted
Jack's
Mr.
Birch's
Maria's
traps
speaks
naps
sniffed
rubbed
escused
How
much
of
this
is
useful
to
teach your typical
ESL and EFL
student?
EXERCISE
12:
DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES
A.
Identify
the
following
as a
derivational morpheme
or as a
bound
root:
commentary, receive, pro-war, progress,
nonstandard,
swiprocessor,
processor,
process,process.
What does each morpheme
mean?
B.
Divide these words into their component morphemes: moccasin,
money,
monoxide, morpheme,
mortgaged,
mousetrap,
muffler,
multiple,
multivariable, mustache, mythology.
You may
need
a
dic-
tionary.
C.
Look back
at the
definitions
of
inflectional morphemes
and
derivational
morphemes
and try to
classify
each
of the
following
ex-
amples
as one or the
other. Note
the
context
in
which
the
word
ap-
pears. Make
a
note
of
your
difficulties.
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SUPPLEMENT
a.
Jennifer
is
taller than
Jane.
Jennifer
is a
basketball player.
b.
She is
playing basketball right now. Playing
is her
main
activity.
c.
She
expected
to
win
the
game.
Her
expected
win
did not
happen.
D.
How can you
explain these
different forms
of the
morpheme
"-in"?
a.
illegal
c.
improbable
e.
inconceivable
(in
rapid
speech)
b.
irrelevant
d.
inefficient
f.
intangible
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