Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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suc

cessful on the job and to rate their overall chances of completing the educa-

tional requirements and successfully securing a job offer. Users can conduct this

self-appraisal/estimation for multiple occupations for a side-by-side comparison.

Finally, SIGI Plus includes a Next Steps section in which users consider issues

such as getting more information, developing a resume, or applying for jobs. As

with most computerized career guidance applications, users’ assessment infor-

mation is saved in a database for use during subsequent visits.

Research generally supports the efficacy of stand-alone personal computer

versions of the SIGI Plus system, and users have favorable ratings of their experi-

ence with the program (Kivlighan, Johnston, Hogan, & Mauer, 1994; G. W. Peter-

son, Ryan-Jones, Sampson, Reardon, & Shahnasarian, 1994). Research is needed,

however, to assess the benefits of using newer Internet-based CACGSs in general

and SIGI Plus in particular. SIGI Plus includes several limitations. Very little doc-

umentation exists on the development or psychometric properties of the instru-

ments used to assess interests, values, or skills. This is particularly concerning

since some of the inventories are short. Additionally, there is no documentation

describing the computer algorithms that are used to make recommendations

(e.g., recommended occupations or majors) to users based on their career assess-

ment results.

DISCOVER The Internet version of DISCOVER (http://www.act.org/discover)

is the modern-day incarnation of JoAnn Harris-Bowlsbey’s Computer Vocational

Information System (CVIS; Harris, 1970). Like SIGI Plus, DISCOVER includes

self-assessment inventories, searchable academic and occupational databases,

and information to assist a client who is actively searching for employment. The

anchor self-assessment instrument in DISCOVER is the Unisex Edition of the

ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT; Swaney, 1995). This instrument measures in-

terests using the six Holland types and ACT’s World-of-Work Map. Extensive

norms are available, allowing this inventory to be used by high school students,

college students, and adults. Additional instruments available in DISCOVER in-

clude the Inventory of Work-Relevant Abilities (IWRA; ACT, 2001) and the Inven-

tory of Work-Relevant Values (Prediger & Staples, 1996). An added advantage of

DISCOVER is that users can utilize the search capabilities of the program by en-

tering assessment scores from non-ACT inventories, such as the Strong Interest

Inventory (Harmon et al., 1994) or the Career Ability Placement Survey (Knapp,

Knapp, & Michael, 1977).

DISCOVER has seven primary modules: Home (which provides orientation and

planning information), Inventories, Occupations, Majors, Schools, Job Search, and

My Portfolio. In addition to orienting the user to the program, the Home section

includes the Plan My Path pages that offer suggested DISCOVER paths in re-

sponse to users’ self-assessment of their current career development needs. As

mentioned previously, the Inventories section allows users to complete interest,

values, or skills self-estimate inventories or to enter results from other skills or in-

terest inventories. Comprehensive search algorithms in the Occupations module

allow users to search for occupations based on assessment results, the WWM, or a

host of other characteristics such as keyword, academic major, income, or educa-

tional level. Equally comprehensive searches are possible in the Majors and

Schools modules of the program. The Job Search module is populated primarily by

static educational content that provides information on topics such as prepar

ing a

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Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 407

resume, preparing for an interview, and securing apprenticeships. The My Port-

folio module allows users to manage and modify information they have saved

during visits to DISCOVER.

An Internet version of DISCOVER for middle school students may also be of

interest to career counselors who plan to work in a school system. Users can com-

plete middle school versions of the UNIACT and the IWRA and can explore occu-

pations based on results from those inventories. With counselor and parent

involvement, students can establish a course plan for high school and can gain an

understanding of the relations among their goals, high school course work, and

occupations.

One of the main advantages of DISCOVER is the extensive documentation

that exists to assist clients, counselors, counselors in training, and DISCOVER

site administrators. For example, counselor aids include printed versions of the

assessment instruments available in DISCOVER and exercises to assist clients at

various levels of career choice and implementation (e.g., practice job application,

action plan exercise). Additionally, counselors or clients can download complete

printed copies of lists of occupations, majors, and schools for review off-line.

There is a growing body of literature that supports the beneficial effects of per-

sonal computer versions of DISCOVER. For example, DISCOVER is associated

with increases in occupational decidedness and certainty (Fukuyama, Robert,

Neimeyer, Nevill, & Metzler, 1988) and career maturity (Langley & Schepers,

1990; Luzzo & Pierce, 1996). Findings from other studies suggest that the use of

computer-assisted guidance systems in general can be enhanced if their use is

combined with individual or group career counseling, leading some authors to

discourage their use in isolation (Barnes & Herr, 1998; Brown et al., 2003). Evi-

dence suggests that the effects of computer use on outcomes may depend on vari-

ables such as Holland type (Lenz, Reardon, & Sampson, 1993) or presenting

concern (Gati, Saka, & Krausz, 2001; Peterson et al., 1994). For example, Lenz and

his colleagues discovered that clients who scored high on the Social and Enter-

prising Holland (people-oriented) dimensions rated computer-based career in-

terventions as less useful compared to clients who scored low on these Holland

dimensions. Further, results from a study by Peterson and his colleagues suggest

that computers may be more useful helping clients identify career alternatives if

those clients express a need for information and are in the early stages of career

decision making. Taken together, these data suggest that although computer

guidance systems can be an integral and effective component of career counsel-

ing practice, they should not be used indiscriminately or in isolation. As with

SIGI Plus, research investigating the Internet version of DISCOVER is lacking.

THICAL

SSUES IN THE

SE OF

OMPUTERS IN

AREER

OUNSELING

Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on the use of the Internet in

career counseling. Gore and Leuwerke (2000), among others (Herr, 1996; Lent,

1996; Watts, 1996), encourage counselors to fashion novel services that take ad-

vantage of advances in computer and communication technologies, and a grow-

ing number of career counselors are heeding that call (e.g., see Clark, Horan,

Tompkins-

Bjorkman, Kovalski, & Hackett, 2000; Walz & Reedy, 2000). Other au-

thors have focused on how computers and the Internet have changed the land-

scape of career assessment (Chartrand & Oliver, 2000; Gati & Saka, 2001; Tinsley,

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2000; Wall, 2000). Web applications of career counseling may range from formal

online assessment, to information-only pages that educate users about a specific

topic, to real-time digital audio/video career counseling. Fortunately, the in-

creased use of the Internet for career and personal counseling purposes has been

accompanied by thoughtful guides, critical evaluations, and discussions of the

ethical issues that are unique to these practices (Bloom, 1998; DuMez, 2000;

Har

ris-Bowlsbey et al., 2002).

The use of the Internet and other computer-enhanced technologies (e.g., telecon-

ferencing) to provide career counseling and career-information services gives

rise to unique legal and ethical questions. For example, most state counselor and

psychologist licensure laws restrict or limit out-of-state practice. Are licensed career

counselors eligible to provide services via the Internet to clients who do not reside

in their practice jurisdiction? Alternatively, can career counselors guarantee the

confidentiality of information transmitted electronically? Is a career counselor re-

sponsible for the quality or accuracy of information provided on linked web pages?

Are electronically administered career assessment devices as valid for the same

uses as are the paper-and-pencil versions? The professional associations that govern

the practice of counseling and psychology have made concerted efforts to begin to

address these issues in revisions of their ethics codes. The ethics codes of the Amer-

ican Counseling Association (ACA, 1999), the National Board for Certified Coun-

selors (NBCC, 1997), the National Career Development Association (NCDA, 1997),

and the American Psychological Association (APA, 1997, 2003) should be consulted

by career counselors intending to use technology in their practice.

Robinson and his colleagues (Robinson, Meyer, Prince, McLean, & Low, 2000)

outlined both the advantages and disadvantages of providing career information

on the Internet. Advantages include having easy access to the information, having

a variety of sources to choose from, and having access to sources of information

that are easily updated. Unfortunately, there are an equal number of disadvan-

tages to accessing career information on the Internet. Perhaps the most serious

concern has to do with the quality of the information being provided. Whereas

printed documents typically undergo an editorial or peer review process, anyone

is permitted to publish materials on the Internet without regard to their accuracy.

It is up to career counselors to evaluate the quality and appropriateness of the in-

formation resources they use with their clients. Counselors are encouraged to

consult the standards developed by the Association of Computer-based Systems

for Career Information (ACSCI). This organization was founded in 1978 to ad-

vance the use and quality of career information available through electronic

means. Stressing core values such as accuracy, relevancy, bias, and user support,

ACSCI strives to ensure that counselors and clients have access to the highest

quality and most accurate career information and services available. In addition

to the ACSCI standards, counselors using Internet-based career information re-

sources are encouraged to review the NCDA’s statement on using the Internet for

the provision of career information (NCDA, 1997).

SING

AREER

NFORMATION IN

OUNSELING

Beginning career counselors may find themselves relying too heavily on the use

of formal career assessment instruments and sources of occupational informa-

tion. These structured psychoeducational processes ease the stress associated

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Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 409

with having to “fill the counseling hour.” Too often, however, assessment and

career information is included in the counseling process without a systematic

appraisal of the client’s needs. Providing too much information at the wrong

time might overwhelm a client. Moreover, relying solely on formal assessment

and sources of career information oversimplifies the complex process of career

decision making. Gysbers and his colleagues (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston,

2003) offer several excellent suggestions for evaluating the client’s need for in-

formation within the career counseling session. These authors aptly note that

many career clients request specific information or experiences. For example, in

some career counseling centers, it is not uncommon for clients to come in specif-

ically asking to “take the test.” Alternatively, many clients present because of a

perceived need for specific career information. Gysbers and his colleagues sug-

gest that career counselors must acquire knowledge of the type of information

that is available and how, when, and in what form to provide it. For example,

these authors encourage counselors to seek continuing education to remain

knowledgeable of new sources of occupational information. Additionally, these

authors highlight the important role professional organizations (e.g., NCDA)

and journals (e.g., Career Development Quarterly) play in making professionals

aware of new resources.

How and when career counselors choose to introduce career information into

the counseling process will depend on many factors, including the counselor’s

theoretical orientation, the developmental level of the client, the client’s present-

ing concern, the stage of counseling, and the availability of information. Gysbers

and his colleagues (Gysbers et al., 2003) encourage counselors to consider why

they are introducing career information. For example, information may be intro-

duced to stimulate further exploration, to motivate a client to action, or to provide

confirmation of what the client already suspects is true. Further, these authors

suggest that it is important to consider timing issues when considering the use of

career information in counseling. Assessing the client’s level of need for informa-

tion throughout the counseling process will help counselors avoid the potentially

negative consequences of providing a client who is in information overload with

even more information.

SUMMARY

Occupational classification provides structure to the diverse world of work.

Career counselors who are familiar with a number of different classification

systems will be able to select from among those systems when working with

clients with different needs and expectations. Counselors are encouraged to ef-

fectively teach their clients the meaning and uses of occupational classification

systems, when appropriate, to promote career development and exploration.

Systematic occupational classification also allows us to provide clients with or-

ganized sources of occupational information such as the OOH and the O*NET.

Broadly speaking, career information can take the form of self-assessment inter-

pretation, printed or electronic occupational information, portrayal of occupa-

tions in the media, job availability data, or information acquired through

discussions with friends, family, or job incumbents. Career counselors today are

faced with an overwhelming amount of career information that describes a rap-

idly changing world of work. Moreover, career counselors now find themselves

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working with technologically sophisticated clients who are adept at ac

cessing

information online but who are not necessarily skilled at evaluating the quality

of that information. Career counselors must be skilled in knowing where to ac-

cess academic and career-related information, how to evaluate its quality, and

whether or when to introduce it into the counseling process.

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SECTION FOUR

CAREER INTERVENTIONS

ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

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