Brown S.D., Lent R. (Editors). Career development and counseling: putting theory and research to work

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including individual career counseling; group career counseling, classroom-based

career curricula, and career education; parent involvement in career interven-

tions; computer assessment and guidance programs (e.g., Web-based programs);

community/career partnerships; and self-directed activities.

ALUE OF

AREER

NTERVENTIONS

Regardless of age or educational level, career counseling interventions have been

shown to be effective in assisting individuals whose primary concern is either to

make or remake a career choice (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000; see Miller & Brown,

Chapter 18, this volume). Based on the results of two meta-analyses of more than

60 studies, Spokane and Oliver (1983; Oliver & Spokane, 1988) concluded that

group- and classroom-based interventions were somewhat more effective than in-

dividual or alternative interventions. Based on the results of meta-analyses of 47

and 57 studies, respectively, Whiston and colleagues (Whiston, Brecheisen, &

Stephens, 2003; Whiston, Sexton, & Lasoff, 1998) argued that there are substantial

differences in the effectiveness of various modes of career interventions, with

counselor-led interventions being considerably more effective than self-directed

interventions overall. In addition, they found that individual career counseling

was the most effective but not the most cost-effective method of intervention, fol-

lowed by group counseling, computer-assisted interventions, career development

workshops, career class interventions, and, finally, self-directed career interven-

tions. While these two groups of researchers’ results were somewhat conflicting,

they did agree that career clients made significant positive gains regardless of the

type of career intervention used.

NDIVIDUAL

AREER

OUNSELING

Individual career counseling is one of the most traditional methods of providing

career services to students (Williamson, 1939). However, new and innovative

methods have been developed that we believe have increased the versatility of

this form of career counseling when working with children and adolescents. In

this section, we briefly examine two new approaches career counselors can use to

enhance their individual career work with young people: the Structured Career

Development Interview (SCDI; Lapan, 2003) and Possible Selves Mapping (Shep-

ard & Marshall, 1999).

The Structured Career Development Interview The SCDI (Lapan, 2003) is a recently

developed instrument designed to assess adolescents’:

1. Academic achievement.

2. Self-efficacy beliefs and attributions.

3. Person-environment fit (self-exploration of abilities, talents, values, and in-

terests; career exploration and planning skills; and school-to-work transi-

tioning skills).

4. Vocational goals.

5. Work-readiness skills and behaviors.

6. Proactivity (assertiveness, commitment, active preparation, awareness of

opportunities, initiative).

The emotional and instrumental support they receive from significant others.

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Promoting Career Development and Aspirations in School-Age Youth 427

Career counselors engage young people in an exploration of these issues through

a series of open-ended questions. SCDI interviews take approximately 30 to 45

minutes to complete. After interviews are scored, individual profiles are con-

structed so that counselees can have a visual representation of those career devel-

opment areas in which they are strong (e.g., are better prepared or have more

skills) and those areas they may want to improve on. Profiles can be used to de-

sign career interventions that are specific to the needs of individual counselees.

Structured interviews, such as the SCDI, have many advantages. First, in a rela-

tively brief period, structured interviews can be used to focus the attention of

clients and counselors on constructs found by researchers to be of critical psycho-

logical importance. Second, young people can be engaged in a relatively nonthreat-

ening method of exploring self in relation to the world of work in a supportive and

caring environment. Third, young people who have difficulty reading may benefit

more from this type of interview than from traditional paper-and-pencil-based as-

sessments (Sattler, 1992).

In an initial study of the SCDI among middle-school students at risk for drop-

ping out of school (Turner, Lapan, Yang, Trotter, Alliman-Brissett, et al., 2003),

career counselors found that they could use the interview as an entry point to

discuss a wide range of personal, family, and developmental issues that confront

these adolescents. Career counselors further reported that by using the struc-

tured interview, they were in a much better position to recommend further ca

reer

interventions as needed. In addition, young people reported that they valued and

were interested in focusing on those career issues they perceived as being impor-

tant in preparing for their futures.

Possible Selves Mapping Possible Selves Mapping (Shepard & Marshall, 1999) is

based on Kelly’s (1955) constructivist view of counseling. Constructivist coun-

selors help clients understand what the relationships are among events in their

lives, how they impose order on their problems, and how they derive meanings

from their experiences. Constructivist counselors typically use a narrative

method (i.e., asking clients to tell their story) to accomplish these purposes.

Kelly (1955) extended constructivist theory to career counseling through his

view that a person’s career is a major means of providing clarity and meaning to

his or her life. Subsequently, Markus and Nurius (1986) introduced possible selves

narration to help career clients describe their past, present, and “imagined” fu

ture

career selves. For children and adolescents, the use of this form of career counsel-

ing may be especially valuable in that helping them focus on their career story

can assist them in expressing their beliefs, desires, values, emotions, and experi-

ences (Shepard & Marshall, 1999).

In a particularly creative application of the possible selves narrative, Possible

Selves Mapping, Shepard and Marshall (1999) ask young persons to identify on

index cards as many hoped-for selves and feared selves as possible. Hoped-for

selves (e.g., a competent professional, an airplane pilot) are the positive selves

that a person could become, and feared selves (e.g., homeless, depressed) are the

negative selves that a person could become (Markus & Nurius, 1986). The young

people are then asked to rank order their hoped-for selves in order of importance.

Next, their most important possible selves are displayed on a map showing rela-

tionships and distances between their hoped-for and feared selves. Then, adoles-

cents are asked a series of questions, such as: Describe the way you imagine

your

life would be if you attained your most important possible selves, and what

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actions could you engage in to help you bring about your most important possible

selves? These questions are designed to help adolescents see the connections be-

tween their actions (e.g., finish high school, find out more about careers in which

they are interested) and the selves they hope to become.

Shepard and Marshall (1999) evaluated this intervention with 42 adolescents

(ages 11 to 13 years). They found that hoped-for selves were expressed more fre-

quently than feared selves. Based on a qualitative analysis of their interviewees’

responses, they suggested that by exploring their possible selves, clients have a

better understanding of the occupations they aspire to, their career-related hopes

and fears, and their multifaceted self-concepts.

ROUP

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Group career counseling includes career-based classroom guidance, integrated

career counseling and academic instruction, and career education, as well as

other innovative career counseling strategies. Group interventions consistently

have been shown to be effective in promoting a wide range of career outcomes for

children and adolescents (Spokane & Oliver, 1983). Group strategies have the ad-

vantage of maximizing benefits to individuals while lowering the cost of career

counseling interventions (Spokane & Oliver, 1983). They allow career counseling

to be brought into the classroom and to be integrated with academics. Group

strategies allow children and adolescents to provide one another with support

and encouragement, as well as bring fresh viewpoints into situations with which

others are struggling. Several group interventions, along with the results of

group career counseling with K-12 youth, are described next.

In an eight-week joint program offered by language arts teachers and high

school counselors, increases were reported in both the career development and

academic achievement of 166 high school juniors (Lapan, Gysbers, Hughey, &

Arni, 1993). In this joint program, school counselors presented extensive in-class

career exploration exercises (e.g., opportunities for adolescents to understand

their own goals, interests, personalities, and talents; to gather information about

the world of work through computer-assisted and other reference materials; and

to reflect on how to create more career support for other students within their

immediate peer group), while the language arts teachers worked with students

on composing a research paper that addressed their post-high school transition

plans. After statistically controlling for prior academic achievement, gains in the

students’ career development competencies (e.g., career planning and explo-

ration, understanding how being male or female relates to jobs and careers, un-

derstanding how education and careers are related) significantly predicted

higher earned grades on their papers.

McWhirter, Crothers, and Rasheed (2000) evaluated a nine-week career educa-

tion class conducted with high school sophomores. The class met for 50 minutes

each day over a nine-week period. The students were engaged in a variety of

hands-on activities, small group experiences, lectures, and exposure to guest

speakers. Curriculum objectives included learning how to locate and use world of

work information, developing a budget, learning about the expectations of

ployers, conducting explorations of postsecondary educational and career

options, learning how to write a resume and interview for a job, and locating

sources of financial support for their post-high school plans. Students were

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Promoting Career Development and Aspirations in School-Age Youth 429

expected to participate actively in the class. An effort was made to make certain

parts of the class (e.g., developing and adhering to a budget) closely related to the

realities of the world students would find themselves in after leaving high school.

At the end of the nine weeks, students completed inventories assessing their abili-

ties, interests, and personalities. The career education class was found to increase

students’ career-related self-efficacy and outcome expectations and assist them

with their career decision making.

Spokane and Oliver (1983) found that a structured group career intervention

(Thoresen & Hamilton, 1972), which was based on peer social modeling, pro-

duced one of the largest effect sizes in their initial meta-analysis of 40 studies. In

this experiment, 11th-grade students were randomly assigned to one of five

groups: (1) a written stimulus materials group, (2) a peer social modeling group,

(3) a combined written stimulus materials and peer social modeling group, (4) an

attention-placebo control group, and (5) a wait list no-treatment group. The stim-

ulus materials were pamphlets of career exploration activities, titled “Planning

My Career.” Peer social modeling was provided in the form of videotapes show-

ing other adolescents engaged in career exploration activities. Each experimental

group participated in four 50-minute treatment sessions. Subsequent to each

treatment session, experimental group participants discussed personally rele-

vant information about their career planning and exploration, their goals and

preferences, how they would acquire information about preferred careers, and

tentative decisions about their future plans. Results demonstrated that the peer

social modeling and combined treatments were more effective than no treatment

with respect to knowing how to obtain and use relevant career information.

However, the materials treatment alone was not significantly more effective than

no treatment on these knowledge outcomes. They concluded that peer social

modeling is an intervention strategy that can be used to assist students to:

1. Seek needed world of work information.

2. Actually use that information.

3. Make initial and tentative decisions on what they would do next.

4. Change their plans, if necessary.

These are just a few examples of the many group career interventions that can

be used with children and adolescents. Overall, analyses of such group-based in-

terventions have shown that they are related to positive changes in such psycho-

logical constructs as vocational identity (Remer, O’Neill, & Gohs, 1984), career

maturity (Whiston et al., 1998), reduced career indecision (D. C. Johnson &

Smouse, 1993; Quinn & Lewis, 1989; Whiston et al., 1998), and greater psychoso-

cial development (Stonewater & Daniels, 1983). Further, research has shown that

students who participate in career education programs across the K-12 years do

slightly better academically than students who do not participate (Evans &

Burck, 1992). The latter authors suggested that the positive influence of career ed-

ucation on academic achievement is strengthened if:

1. The career education program is integrated with the mathematics or lan-

guage arts curriculum.

2. The intervention is intensive.

3. The intervention is in at least its second year of implementation with the

same cohort.

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The research literature is replete with findings about the benefits of parental

support for children’s and adolescents’ career development. For example, Ban-

dura et al. (2001) found that parents’ self-efficacy to promote their children’s aca-

demic endeavors was positively associated with their children’s self-efficacy

related to a broad variety of careers. Marjoribanks (2002) demonstrated that par-

ents’ perceived aspirations for their adolescent children have medium to large as-

sociations with the adolescents’ educational aspirations and small but significant

associations with the adolescents’ occupational aspirations (see Rojewski, Chap-

ter 6, this volume). F. M. Smith and Hausafus (1998) showed that middle school

minority students had higher test scores in math when their parents helped them

to see the importance of taking advanced math courses, emphasized the impor-

tance of math for today’s careers, and supported their children’s participation in

extracurricular math/science activities. Hoyt (2001) argued that because there

will be less opportunity in the labor market for young people with four-year or

graduate school degrees (only 30% of the newly created jobs in the next 10 years

are predicted to require a bachelor’s or graduate school degree), parents should

be enlisted to help adolescents explore a wide variety of educational options in

order to choose those that are best suited to their needs. Practical strategies to

help counselors work with families have been empirically examined, and sugges-

tions have been made to help parents become more productively involved in pro-

moting their children’s career futures. Two of these strategies are discussed next.

Mother-Daughter Dyads In a study examining the support of mothers for their

daughters’ career development, African American mothers and their teenage

daughters both completed a possible selves intervention in which both de-

scribed the daughters’ “possible selves” (Kerpelman, Shoffner, & Ross-Griffin,

2002). They also completed a possible selves card-sort focusing on the personal

attributes, roles, and life circumstances that might be expected for the daugh-

ters’ futures.

Findings from the card-sort data indicated two distinctive mother-

daughter groups, with one group emphasizing the daughters’ personal attributes

(e.g., organization, helpfulness, creativity, intelligence), and the other group em-

phasizing the daughters’ future occupations (e.g., business owner, religious leader,

lawyer) and life circumstances (e.g., rich, famous). By analyzing the qualitative re-

sponses of these two groups, Kerpelman et al. concluded that adolescents have very

different support needs depending on their personal characteristics, and their per-

sonal, environmental, and developmental resources. These researchers further sug-

gested that by using possible selves interventions with mothers

and daughters,

young women’s differential needs can be uncovered so that mothers will be in a

more advantageous position to assist in their daughters’ academic and career

development.

The Partners Program (Cochran, 1985) This program was designed to help parents

help their adolescents develop a sense of agency about a career. In this program,

parents offer career guidance to their sons and daughters using (1) a career explo-

ration workbook that identifies interests, strengths, and values; (2) a career grid

workbook that facilitates deliberation on viable options and tentative career deci-

sions; and (3) a career planning workbook that encourages educational plan

ning

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Promoting Career Development and Aspirations in School-Age Youth 431

toward a vocational goal. Parents are given information about the importance of

parental support in the career development of children and adolescents and about

how to interact with their adolescents around the Partners materials. Parents also

are taught microcounseling skills and attitudes, such as warmth, reciprocity, mu-

tual balance of power, and attentiveness. Finally, parents are provided support

and guidance in the form of phone calls and discussion groups with other par-

ents, as they work individually with their adolescents through the Partners mate-

rials.

Two studies examined the effectiveness of the Partners Program with high

school students. Palmer and Cochran (1988) found that adolescents reported in-

creased career orientation, and a strengthening of parental bonding. Kush and

Cochran (1993) found that, compared to the control group, experimental group

adolescents reported more certainty in their career directions, less career indeci-

sion, greater career confidence, and more career motivation.

OMPUTER

SSESSMENT AND

UIDANCE

ROGRAMS

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ROGRAMS

)

Computer assessment and guidance programs are typically welcomed by K-12

youth. As children growing up in the information age, these students are often

computer savvy and are able to receive maximum benefit from using this medium.

Two computer programs and their uses are briefly reviewed here: DISCOVER

(American College Testing, 2003) and Mapping Vocational Challenges (Lapan &

Turner, 1997, 2000).

DISCOVER The DISCOVER program is a widely administered career guidance

and assessment program designed for middle school and high school students.

(An online version is now available from ACT.) Children and adolescents who use

the DISCOVER program can explore educational and occupational options, in-

cluding types of occupations available in the world of work, major programs of

study offered by various post-high school institutions, financial aid information,

and job-seeking skills information. Embedded in DISCOVER is the Unisex ACT

Interest Inventory, which predicts adolescents’ Holland theme codes and future

career interests by asking them to rate their attraction to current school and

tracurricular activities. Students also are able to use DISCOVER to develop a

career plan that is digitally stored and can be reaccessed. The individual assess-

ment reports generated by DISCOVER can be used by career counselors to assist

young people in their career planning and exploration. Evaluation studies testing

the effectiveness of this career development system have shown that, subsequent

to program use, middle school students demonstrate significant gains in career

maturity (Luzzo & Pierce, 1996), and high school students demonstrate signifi-

cant increases in the specificity of their educational and vocational plans (Ray-

man, Bryson, & Bowlsbey, 1978).

Mapping Vocational Challenges (MVC) The MVC is a computerized career inter-

vention based on Holland’s theory (1997; Spokane & Cruza-Guet, Chapter 2, this

volume), Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise (1981; Got-

tfredson, Chapter 4, this volume), and Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent et al.,

1994; Lent, Chapter 5, this volume). Using this program, middle school adoles

cents

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explore information (summarized from the Occupational Outlook Handbook; Bu-

reau of Labor Statistics, 2002–2003) that is related to specific careers, such as as-

sociated work activities, recommended high school classes, post-high school

training requirements, salary levels, and geographic availability. They then com-

plete a career assessment in which they explore their career interests, efficacy for

pursuing various occupations, perceived parent support for pursuing various oc-

cupations, valuing of various occupations, and perceived gender-typing of vari-

ous occupations. Assessments are computer scored, and an interpretive report is

computer generated. Evaluation of the MVC (Turner & Lapan, in press), in which

career counselors used interpretive report results to challenge middle school ado-

lescents’ gender-traditional career interests, demonstrated that program use in-

creased career planning and exploration efficacy, educational and vocational

development efficacy, and career interests in both traditional and nontraditional

occupations.

OMMUNITY

AREER

ARTNERSHIPS

Communities can create situations in which it will be much more likely for young

people to successfully engage in career development tasks. A growing body of re-

search suggests that structured community-based experiences are critical devel-

opmental pathways through which young people can become self-directed,

socially competent, caring, and successful young adults (R. W. Larson, 2000).

Structured activities such as service and civic activities, Girl Scouts, Cub Scouts,

and sports have been shown to help young people develop initiative, responsibil-

ity, and follow-through (Lapan, 2004). Community/career partnerships that pro-

vide career development opportunities for young people, such as work-based

learning, service learning, internships, and apprenticeships, are likely to engage

K-12 youth in the exploration of broader career pathways. They can guide young

people in planning high school coursework around their career goals and in using

elective courses to meet avocational goals. Well-established and maintained

community-based partnerships can enable career counselors to meet more effec-

tively the career development needs and challenges of children and adolescents

(Lapan, Osana, et al., 2002).

One example of a community/career partnership for which some data are

available is the mentoring program described by Terry (1999). In this program,

community partners mentored 7- to 11-year-old children. Through interviewing

both the mentors and their mentees, Terry found that the children enjoyed

spending time with their mentors, learned about the world of work, and partic-

ipated in a variety of experiences. Mentors enjoyed the relationships with their

mentees and believed that their mentees learned many things from them,

including problem-solving techniques and information about potential careers

and higher education.

Another example of community/career partnerships is the offering of summer

camps for primarily low-income or first-generation potential college students.

These camps are typically hosted by universities and funded by consortiums of

government and community agencies (e.g., U.S. Department of Education, United

Way). The camps typically focus on specific career programs, such as math and

science, basic engineering and robotics, computer science, business and entrepre-

neurship, or precollege exploration. The programs are advertised under such

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Promoting Career Development and Aspirations in School-Age Youth 433

names as Bridges to Medicine, American Indian Science and Engineering pro-

grams, Upward Bound, and TRIO. Program information is usually mailed to high

school and middle school guidance offices. Alternatively, this information can be

found on individual university web sites. Although most data on summer camps

are anecdotal, one study was conducted on the effectiveness of a two-week sum-

mer science exploration camp (Gibson & Chase, 2002). Results indicated that pro-

gram participants maintained a more positive attitude toward science and a

higher interest in science-based careers than did the comparison group of stu-

dents who applied to the program but were not selected. However, the internal

validity of this study’s design was compromised by selection bias (i.e., possible

preexisting differences between program participants and nonparticipants).

Other examples of community/career partnerships are the work-based learn-

ing classes funded by many urban school districts designed to serve the needs of

students who are at risk for academic failure (Juntunen & Wettersten, Chapter 24,

this volume). These community/career partnerships allow students as young as

15 years old to hold part-time jobs during part of their school day, while under the

supervision of both their career education instructor and their employer. In their

career education classes, they learn job and life skills such as interviewing and

job acquisition techniques (e.g., using labor market information to find jobs,

preparing a resume, filling out job applications, interviewing for a job), managing

personal resources (e.g., balancing a checking account, saving money, credit use),

and self-sufficient living (e.g., preparing a budget, renting an apartment, buying

a car). While at work, they practice the interpersonal skills, basic literacy skills

(e.g., writing, math, and English language skills), and the job skills required to

become successful full-time employees.

These types of community/career partnerships take advantage of the current

research on work-based learning, which shows that training young people in

basic work-related and job-specific skills is very effective when it takes place on

the job or in a job-like setting, and that the more this training is linked to work,

the better the results (Mikulecky, 1989). Basic skills are often easier to learn when

they are integrated into a training program that is specific to the context of a par-

ticular job (Mikulecky). Employer-provided training may also have more moti-

vated trainees, more effective tutorial learning methods, and more appropriate

training materials and equipment (Bishop, 1994).

Lapan and Kosciulek (2001) developed a framework that career development

specialists can use to evaluate the impact of community-based career partner-

ships. They suggested that outcomes should be organized around three themes:

benefits to students, benefits to employers, and benefits to the community. Eval-

uations of community/career partnerships organized around these three themes

have shown positive initial results. For example, in a program review submitted

to Congress, Hershey, Silverberg, Haimson, Hudis, and Jackson (1999) demon-

strated that both college-bound and non-college-bound students were equally

likely to participate in partnership activities; young women, especially African

American women, had become much more involved in school- and workplace-

lated learning opportunities; and secondary students were now enrolled in

more academic classes that focused on their career interests. Based on their re

view

of these initial outcome studies, Lapan and Kosciulek suggested that community

partnerships can dramatically improve the career development of an increasingly

diverse K-12 youth population.

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Counselor-free career interventions are widespread and will likely become in-

creasingly popular choices for career clients in the future. One of the most popular

and well-researched counselor-free interventions is the Self-Directed Search (SDS;

Holland, 2001). Two of the more user-friendly Self-Directed Search versions are

the online version, which can be located at www.self-directed-search.com,

and the

self-scoring version, which can be purchased inexpensively from the publisher.

SDS respondents list their occupational daydreams, and then rate their attraction

to various career-related activities, their self-perceived

job-related competencies,

their interests in various occupations, and their self-estimated abilities. By scor-

ing the SDS (the online version is automatically scored), respondents learn their

Holland occupational theme codes, and then use these codes to locate and ex-

plore corresponding occupational information. The online version provides a

personal report that includes both Holland theme scores and corresponding oc-

cupational information. (Note that other computer-based guidance systems also

can be used as counselor-free interventions.)

Self-directed career activities can also take the form of part-time and summer

jobs. While some researchers have shown that working too many hours leads to

problems in academic achievement among adolescents (Quirk, Keith, & Quirk,

2001), other researchers have shown that there are a variety of positive outcomes

for adolescents who work a few hours each week (Mortimer, 2003; Mortimer &

Johnson, 1999). For example, high school students who work fewer than 12 hours

per week demonstrate greater academic achievement than those students who are

not employed (Quirk et al., 2001). Having part-time jobs can increase high school

adolescents’ confidence, cultivate time management skills, promote vocational

exploration, and increase subsequent academic success (Mortimer, 2003). In addi-

tion, the wider social circle of adults that teens meet through their jobs can buffer

the effects of family problems, and some skills young people learn on the job can

give them an advantage in their later work life (Mortimer).

SUMMARY

n this chapter, we have examined how career development professionals can assist

K-12 youth to develop more adaptive approaches to their present and possible ca-

reer futures. We have argued that counselors who actively engage young people in

career planning and exploration can provide substantial help to them by teaching

them the skills needed to live more effective and satisfying adult lives. We have

demonstrated that career interventions should be consistently and inten

tionally

provided for all children and adolescents, according to their individual needs and

circumstances. Further, we have suggested that career development activities

begun earlier in children’s lives can provide a foundation for later successful ca-

reer development in young adulthood.

With respect to the types of interventions that are most effective, we suggest

that a variety of methods can be used, depending on the needs of the child and the

expertise of the counselor. Counselor-directed methods appear to be more effective

than self-directed methods. However, both may be important as adolescents indi-

viduate and take more responsibility for their career directions. In addition, the in-

clusion of family and community support can strengthen the impact of ca

reer

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counseling with K-12 children. Finally, we hope that this chapter has acquainted

the reader with the positive results that career interventions can offer all children

and adolescents. Promoting the aspirations and career development of school-age

youth is a rich and fruitful area for further empirical study. Providing skillful and

informed career services to school-age youth can meaningfully assist them in es-

tablishing more satisfying, productive, and fulfilling adult lives.

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