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should possess skills in speaking and listening and should be able to interpret

other people’s reactions. Further, Childcare Workers may care for children in

var

ious settings and be expected to organize and participate in recreational or

educational activities. Because occupations exist in the context of larger organiza-

tions, industries, and economies, the O*NET provides users with helpful infor-

mation about the industry in which an occupation exists. This information, which

includes wage and employment outlook data, is captured in the Occupation Char-

acteristics domain of the content model. This information is provided as a result

of collaborative efforts with the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Department of

Commerce, America’s Job Bank, and other state and federal employment organi-

zations. When accessing the O*NET database via the Web interface, Occupation

Characteristics information is available via a hyperlink to America’s Career In-

foNet (http://www.acinet.org).

The Worker Requirements domain of the content model includes work-related

attributes that may be acquired through the processes of experience or education.

This domain complements the job-oriented domain of Occupation Specific Infor-

mation and defines the knowledge, skills, and educational requirements necessary

for an individual to succeed in an occupation. Users are provided with informa-

tion on the level of experience, training, or education required for an occupation

through the use of job zones. Each occupation is classified into one of five zones

depending on the level of preparation needed to enter the occupation. Zone 1 de-

scribes occupations that require little or no preparation, whereas occupations in

Zone 5 require extensive experience and/or extended postsecondary education.

The job zone description for the occupation of Childcare Workers is presented in

Figure 16.2 O*NET Content Model.

Worker requirements

• Basic skills

•Cross-functional skills

• General knowledge

• Education

Experience requirements

•Training

• Experience

• Licensing

Occupation characteristics

• Labor market information

• Occupational outlook

•Wages

Worker characteristics

• Abilities

• Interests and work

values

•Work styles

Occupation requirements

• Generalized work

activities

•Work context

•Organizational context

Occupation specific

• Occupational knowledge

• Occupational skills

•Tasks

• Machines, tools, and

equipment

O*NET

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Table 16.3

Abridged Information Describing the Occupation of

Childcare Worker from the O*NET Online

Importance Work Activities Work Activities Definitions

83 Assisting and car-

ing for others

Providing personal assistance, medical attention,

emotional support, or other personal care to others

such as coworkers, customers, or patients.

75 Performing general

physical activities

Performing physical activities that require consider-

able use of your arms and legs and moving your

whole body, such as climbing, lifting, balancing,

walking, stooping, and handling of materials.

Importance Work Context Work Context Definitions

100 Contact with others How much does this job require the worker to be in

contact with others (face to face, by telephone, or

otherwise) in order to perform it?

70 Indoors, environ-

mentally controlled

How often does this job require working indoors in

environmentally controlled conditions?

Spend time standing

How much does this job require standing?

Importance Knowledge Knowledge Definitions

92 Customer and per-

sonal service

Knowledge of principles and processes for provid-

ing customer and personal services. This includes

customer needs assessment, and meeting quality

standards for services.

63 Psychology Knowledge of human behavior and performance;

individual differences in ability, personality, and in-

terests; learning and motivation; psychological re-

search methods; and the assessment and

treatment of behavioral and affective disorders.

50 Education and

training

Knowledge of principles and methods for curricu-

lum and training design, teaching and instruction

for individuals and groups, and the measurement

of training effects.

Importance Abilities Abilities Definitions

92 Oral expression The ability to communicate information and ideas

in speaking so others will understand.

39-9011.00: Childcare Workers

Attend to children at schools, businesses, private households, and childcare institutions.

Perform a variety of tasks, such as dressing, feeding, bathing, and overseeing play.

(continued)

Tasks:

• Cares for children in institutional settings, such as group homes, nursery schools,

private businesses, or schools for the handicapped.

• Organizes and participates in recreational activities.

• Disciplines children and recommends or initiates other measures to control behavior.

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Table 16.3 (Continued)

Job Zone Component Job Zone Component Definitions

Title Job Zone One: Little or No Preparation Needed

Overall experience No previous work-related skill, knowledge, or experience is

needed for these occupations. For example, a person can be-

come a general office clerk even if he/she has never worked in

an office before.

Job training Employees in these occupations need anywhere from a few

days to a few months of training. Usually, an experienced

worker could show you how to do the job.

Job zone examples These occupations involve following instructions and helping

others. Examples include bus drivers, forest and conservation

workers, general office clerks, home health aides, and waiters/

waitresses.

SVP range (Below 4.0)

94 Social

Education These occupations may require a high school diploma or GED

certificate. Some may require a formal training course to obtain

a license.

Working with, communicating with, and teaching

people. These occupations often involve helping or

providing service to others.

44 Artistic Working with forms, designs and patterns. They

often require self-expression and the work can be

done without following a clear set of rules.

Interest Interests Interests Definitions

33 Realistic Work activities that include practical, hands-on

problems and solutions. They often deal with

plants, animals, and real-world materials like wood,

tools, and machinery. Some require working out-

side, and do not involve a lot of paperwork or work-

ing closely with others.

28 Investigative

Working with ideas, and require an extensive

amount of thinking. These occupations can in-

volve searching for facts and figuring out prob-

lems mentally.

28 Enterprising Starting up and carrying out projects. These occu-

pations can involve leading people and making

many decisions. Sometimes they require risk tak-

ing and often deal with business.

28 Conventional Following set procedures and routines. These oc-

cupations can include working with data and de-

tails more than with ideas. Usually there is a clear

line of authority to follow.

50 Problem sensitivity The ability to tell when something is wrong or is

likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the

problem, only recognizing there is a problem.

Oral comprehension

The ability to listen and understand information

and ideas presented through spoken words and

sentences.

Importance Abilities Abilities Definitions

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92 Speaking Talking to others to convey information effectively.

63 Social

perceptiveness

Being aware of others’ reactions and understand-

ing why they react as they do.

50 Active listening Giving full attention to what other people are say-

ing, taking time to understand the points being

made, asking questions as appropriate, and not in-

terrupting at inappropriate times.

Note: Importance, extent, and interest ratings in O*NET are measured on different scales. To pro-

vide users with more intuitive scores, ratings are standardized to a scale ranging from 0 to 100.

Higher values reflect more importance

Importance Skills Skills Definitions

Table 16.3 (Continued)

Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 399

Extent Work Values Work Values Definitions

70 Relationships Occupations that satisfy this work value allow em-

ployees to provide service to others and work with

coworkers in a friendly noncompetitive environ-

ment. Corresponding needs are Coworkers, Moral

Values, and Social Service.

52 Working conditions Occupations that satisfy this work value offer job

security and good working conditions. Correspond-

ing needs are Activity, Compensation, Indepen-

dence, Security, Variety, and Working Conditions.

48 Independence Occupations that satisfy this work value allow em-

ployees to work on their own and make decisions.

Corresponding needs are Creativity, Responsibility,

and Autonomy.

47 Achievement Occupations that satisfy this work value are results

oriented and allow employees to use their

strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of accom-

plishment. Corresponding needs are Ability Utiliza-

tion and Achievement.

Extent Work Needs Work Needs Definition

94 Social service Workers on this job have work where they do

things for other people.

69 Activity Workers on this job are busy all the time.

63 Security Workers on this job have steady employment.

59 Moral values Workers on this job are never pressured to do

things that go against their sense of right and

wrong.

56 Company policies

and practices

Workers on this job are treated fairly by the com-

pany.

56 Working conditions Workers on this job have good working conditions.

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Table 16.3. Work as Childcare Workers requires little or no preparation, and train-

ing typically occurs on the job. It is important to remember that job zone descrip-

tions are designed to capture the experiential and educational requirements of a

broad class of occupations. Clients should be encouraged to seek more specific in-

formation about the requirements of occupations that they are considering.

The Worker Characteristics domain of the content model describes the endur-

ing characteristics that might influence individuals’ performance on the job and

their capacity to acquire additional knowledge and skills to advance. Enduring

characteristics might include abilities, values, interests, or work styles. Table 16.3

includes a summary of the interest patterns, global work values, and specific

work needs of individuals in the field of Childcare. Finally, the Experience Re-

quirements domain of the content model generates information about the typical

experiential background of workers in the occupation and the need for licensure

or certification.

The data that drive the O*NET database have been collected using at least four

separate sources. The primary source of data is job incumbents. Job incumbents

completed surveys describing their typical work activities, their work environ-

ment, and the skills and knowledge areas that are required for successful perfor-

mance on the job. Additional data are provided by trained job analysts and

organizational representatives. Finally, economic data in the O*NET database are

provided by existing databases maintained by the Departments of Commerce,

Education, and Labor Statistics.

As mentioned previously, the O*NET was developed with career counselors

and their clients in mind. To this end, the O*NET development project has pro-

duced a number of career assessment instruments to assist clients in understand-

ing their interests, values, and abilities. The Ability Profiler (USDOL, 2002a; see

also Ryan Krane & Tirre, Chapter 14, this volume) is a paper-and-pencil instru-

ment that can be used to assess skills in nine areas (e.g., verbal ability, spatial

ability, clerical perception, and manual dexterity). Computer-generated scores

can be used to link clients with skill requirements for more than 950 different

O*NET occupations. A training manual is available for test administrators, and

other documents are provided to aid counselors and clients with interpreting

score profiles.

The O*NET Interest Profiler (Lewis & Rivkin, 1999; USDOL, 2000a) is an interest

inventory that provides clients with scores on Holland’s six work personality di-

mensions. Like the Self-Directed Search, this instrument can be self-administered

and self-scored. The score report booklet includes activities for generating a list of

occupational alternatives and orients clients to the concept of job zones (ratings of

the degree of preparation or training required for job entry). A personal computer

version of the Interest Profiler is now available for downloading at no cost. An

added benefit of using the personal computer version of the Interest Profiler is that

the score report automatically generates a list of occupations whose occupational

interest profiles correlate highly with the interest profile of the client. Finally, a

paper-and-pencil version (O*NET Work Importance Locator; USDOL, 2000b) and

personal computer version (O*NET Work Importance Profiler; USDOL, 2002b;

McCloy et al., 1999b) of a values clarification exercise are now available. These card

sorting exercises are modeled after the MIQ (Rounds, Henly, Dawis, Lofquist, &

Weiss, 1981) and can be used to assist clients with understanding their work-

lated needs and values and how those needs and values correspond to O*NET

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Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 401

occupations. Although electronic versions of both the interest and values instru-

ments are currently available, these versions are stand-alone products. As such,

clients are not currently able to use their interest or values results to search for

occupations using the online version of the O*NET.

In summary, the O*NET is a comprehensive occupational and career guidance

network developed and maintained by the National Center for O*NET Develop-

ment. The O*NET has the potential to provide valuable links between compre-

hensive occupational information and both new and existing career guidance

assessment resources. Like any resource, however, the O*NET has several limita-

tions (N. G. Peterson, Mumford, Borman, Jeanneret, Fleishman, et al., 2001). For

example, these authors point out the low response rates that were obtained dur-

ing initial attempts at securing data from job incumbents. Occupational informa-

tion provided by incumbents is currently available for only a small subset of the

almost 1,000 occupations available on the O*NET. Thus, the current O*NET pro-

vides occupational information that combines job incumbent and analyst ratings.

Research is needed to assess the relations between incumbent and analyst ratings

and to increase incumbent participation rates if the O*NET is to realize its full

potential. For the time being, counselors are encouraged to familiarize them-

selves with the O*NET but to use it cautiously and in combination with other ex-

tant sources of career information.

CCUPATIONAL

UTLOOK

ANDBOOK

For more than 50 years, the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) has provided

individuals with accurate and detailed occupational information (USDOL,

2002c). The OOH includes information about the nature of the work, working

conditions, the number and distribution of workers, training required for occu-

pational entry and advancement, and the average earnings of job incumbents in

a large number of occupations. What makes the OOH unique among sources of

occupational information is the fact that it provides readers with projected five-

to seven-year employment outlooks. A recent report (Alpert & Auyer, 2003) sug-

gested that the employment projections provided by the OOH are remarkably

accurate. A review of the 1988 to 2000 employment projections found that the

direction of change was accurate in more than 70% of cases. The OOH is revised

biennially and includes information on more than 250 distinct jobs. Because

the OOH includes a detailed narrative for each occupation, related occupations

are often grouped together. For example, the OOH contains a single entry for

biological and medical scientists even though at least eight separate occupa-

tions are covered in the narrative. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

the occupations described in the OOH represent approximately 90% of the U.S.

workforce.

The OOH is currently available in both print and electronic versions. The In-

ternet version of the OOH (http://www.bls.gov/oco) allows users to browse oc-

cupations by occupational clusters or conduct keyword searches. The OOH also

includes general information that may be helpful to job seekers or prospective

students. For example, the OOH includes a section that outlines strategies for

gathering career information and job opportunities from friends and families,

societies and professional organizations, and counselors. Additional sections of

the OOH provide information on student financial aid and state employment

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security agencies. Finally, an online version of the OOH has been developed

for use with younger children (http://stats.bls.gov/k12/html/edu_over.htm).

There are nine sections included for each occupation covered in the OOH: Signif-

icant Points; Nature of the Work; Working Conditions; Employment; Training,

Other Qualifications, and Advancement; Job Outlook; Earnings; Related Occupa-

tions; and Sources of Additional Information. Table 16.4 contains an abridged ver-

sion of the OOH entry for Childcare Workers.

The Significant Points section serves as an executive summary of noteworthy

occupational characteristics and contains only information that is presented in

more depth in subsequent sections. The Nature of the Work section provides a

snapshot of general work tasks as well as tasks performed by specialists within

the discipline. The Working Conditions section includes a description of the

physical work environment and the nature of the workweek. This section also in-

cludes information related to occupational health risks, unusual physical de-

mands, and special equipment that may be associated with an occupation. The

Employment section includes data on the current number of U.S. job incumbents

and the distribution of employment across industries or work settings. This sec-

tion may also include information about full- versus part-time employment and

geographic trends observed in the employment statistics. The Training, Other

Qualifications, and Advancement section describes the nature and amount of

training required for occupational entry, in addition to the nature of training re-

quired for advancement in the field. This section also includes information re-

lated to certification or licensure of employees.

The Job Outlook section provides readers with detailed information on the fu-

ture job market for an occupation or set of occupations. This section includes a

discussion of factors that may influence occupational growth or decline in the

next decade. For example, high rates of turnover in the field of childcare suggest

that there will be a continued need for entry-level workers; personal and home

care aides are expected to be in great demand as the number of elderly people in

our population rises. This section may also support employment projections

based on economic trends, projected industry growth or decline, technological

changes, or trends in trade relations.

The Earnings section describes typical wage and compensation data such as

salaries, commissions, hourly wages, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. The range of

earnings is presented to account for differences due to experience, tenure, per-

formance, responsibility, and geographic location. Benefits, such as paid vaca-

tion, insurance, childcare, and sick leave are not discussed as thoroughly due to

organizational variability. The next section, Related Occupations, includes a list

of occupations that are similar with respect to interests, skills, duties, education,

and training. Finally, the Sources of Additional Information section includes a list

of addresses, phone numbers, and Internet URLs for government agencies,

unions, associations, and other organizations related to the occupation.

In addition to providing information about specific occupations, the OOH in-

cludes sections devoted to overall trends in the labor force, finding a job and eval-

uating a job offer, and alternative resources for gathering career and occupational

information. The Internet version of the OOH includes links to the Bureau of

Labor

Statistics and to the Occupational Outlook Quarterly (OOQ; http://www.bls

.gov/opub/ooq/ooqhome.htm). The OOQ includes articles that may be of interest

to career counselors and their clients. Each issue of the OOQ includes an essay de-

tailing a single occupation and a collection of shorter essays on career develop

ment

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Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 403

Table 16.4

Abridged Description of the Occupation Childcare Workers

from the Occupational Outlook Handbook

Significant Points

•About 2 out of 5 childcare workers are self-employed; most of these are family

childcare providers.

•A high school diploma and little or no experience are adequate for many jobs, but

training requirements vary from a high school diploma to a college degree.

• High turnover should create good job opportunities.

Nature of the Work

Childcare workers nurture and teach children of all ages in childcare centers, nursery

schools, preschools, public schools, private households, family childcare homes, and be-

fore- and after-school programs. These workers play an important role in a child’s devel-

opment by caring for the child when parents are at work or away for other reasons. Some

parents enroll their children in nursery schools or childcare centers primarily to provide

them with the opportunity to interact with other children. In addition to attending to chil-

dren’s basic needs, these workers organize activities that stimulate the children’s physi-

cal, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore their interests,

develop their talents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to behave

with others.

Working Conditions

Preschool or childcare facilities include private homes, schools, religious institutions,

workplaces in which employers provide care for employees’ children, and private build-

ings. Individuals who provide care in their own homes generally are called family child-

care providers.

Employment

Childcare workers held about 1.2 million jobs in 2000. Many worked part time. About 2

out of 5 childcare workers are self-employed; most of these are family childcare

providers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The training and qualifications required of childcare workers vary widely. Each state has

its own licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training, ranging from a high

school diploma, to community college courses, to a college degree in child development

or early-childhood education. Many states require continuing education for workers in

this field. However, state requirements often are minimal. Childcare workers generally

can obtain employment with a high school diploma and little or no experience. Local

governments, private firms, and publicly funded programs may have more demanding

training and education requirements.

Job Outlook

High turnover should create good job opportunities for childcare workers. Many child-

care workers leave the occupation each year to take other jobs, to meet family responsi-

bilities, or for other reasons. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should

have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Opportunities for nannies should be espe-

cially good, as many workers prefer not to work in other people’s homes.

(continued)

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programs, college majors, employment trends, and other topics that would be

useful to the practicing career counselor. In short, the OOH is one of the most

widely available and widely used occupational information resources in the

United States.

SING

OMPUTERS TO

CCESS

AREER

NFORMATION

Computers have been a part of career counseling and guidance for more than 30

years. In the 1960s, for example, the U.S. Department of Labor funded a project to

Table 16.4 (Continued)

Earnings

Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment.

Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings.

Median hourly earnings of wage and salary childcare workers were $7.43 in 2000. The

middle 50 percent earned between $6.30 and $9.09. The lowest 10 percent earned less

than $5.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.71. Median hourly earn-

ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of childcare workers in 2000 were

as follows:

Residential care $8.71

Elementary and secondary schools 8.52

Civic and social associations 6.98

Child daycare services 6.74

Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services 6.65

Related Occupations

Childcare work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and

influence children; and leadership, organizational, and administrative skills. Others who

work with children and need these qualities and skills include teacher assistants; teach-

ers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and special education

teachers.

Sources of Additional Information

For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate cre-

dential, contact:

• Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-

3575.

Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org

For eligibility requirements and a description of the Certified Childcare Professional des-

ignation, contact:

• National Childcare Association, 1016 Rosser St., Conyers, GA 30012.

Internet: http://www.nccanet.org

State Departments of Human Services or Social Services can supply state regulations

and training requirements for childcare workers.

Source: Occupational Outlook Handbook

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Occupational Classification and Sources of Occupational Information 405

develop a mainframe computer program that could provide up-to-date informa-

tion about the state labor market and state educational opportunities. In the

1970s, computer-assisted career guidance systems (CACGS) such as SIGI

(http://www.ets.org/sigi) and DISCOVER (http://www.act.org/discover) were

developed. These guidance systems can administer and score inventories and

provide clients with an explanation of their results. More comprehensive systems

integrate results from multiple career assessment devices to suggest academic

and occupational alternatives. Additionally, these systems may provide common

psychoeducational content such as descriptions of effective job search strategies

or decision-making skills. Research clearly documents the beneficial effects of

computer-assisted guidance products on a range of outcomes (Oliver & Spokane,

1988; Whiston, Sexton, & Lasoff, 1998).

The rapid growth of communication technologies such as the Internet

has changed both the nature of work (Gore, Leuwerke, & Krumboltz, 2002;

Grantham, 2000) and the practice of career guidance and counseling (Chartrand

& Oliver, 2000; Gore & Leuwerke, 2000). A recent GOOGLE search of the term

reer counseling, for example, revealed more than 250,000 web sites. Given the dif-

ficulty of reviewing such a massive amount of information and the transient na-

ture of many sites, we limit our discussion to two computer-assisted guidance

systems that are currently available on the Internet (SIGI Plus and DISCOVER).

SIGI Plus SIGI Plus (http://www.ets.org/sigi) represents the most recent ver-

sion of a system that was originally developed by Martin Katz (1963). Katz’s

System for Interactive Guidance Information (SIGI) was developed to help stu-

dents identify occupations based on an assessment of their work values and

skills. SIGI Plus continues to provide career clients with up-to-date career infor-

mation that is integrated with results from self-assessment of work values,

skills, and interests.

SIGI Plus is organized into nine sections. In the Introduction section, users are

provided with an overview of the program. Through an orientation to the differ-

ent functions of the program, users can identify which functions apply to their

current career development needs. In the Self-Assessment section, clients can

complete inventories to help them clarify their work values, interests, and skill

confidence. Users can then search for occupational titles based on the results of

these inventories or by selecting a two- or four-year college major. Clients can

also view detailed occupational information in the Information section of the pro-

gram. In the Skills section, clients are able to rate the degree to which they be-

lieve they have the specific skills required for occupations covered by SIGI Plus.

This section also contains a management skills self-appraisal survey. Students

can identify typical paths for preparing for any of SIGI Plus’s occupations in the

Preparing section. This section also provides individuals with an opportunity to

consider factors that relate to preparing for work (e.g., finding time and money,

staying motivated). A section on Coping helps students or clients to consider is-

sues related to preparing for, or changing, a career, such as arranging for child-

care or relocating.

One of the strengths of SIGI Plus lies in the Deciding section of the program. In

this section, students are able to rate the degree to which they believe an occupa-

tion will provide them with the rewards they find desirable and will allow them

to engage in activities in which they are interested. Additionally, users are asked

to rate the degree to which they believe they have the skills necessary to be

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