Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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are generally recognized as safe in beverages, but

the finished product must be thujone-free. Extracts

of yarrow have also been shown to be effective as

mosquito repellents. Contact with yarrow has been

reported to cause dermatitis. Field plots and ex-

periments have been established with the objective

of extracting chamazulene: 24 t of fresh matter

per ha has been harvested at full bloom, yielding

0.3% volatile oil and 4.43 kg of chamazulene per

hectare.

Artemisia dracunculus, A. afra,

and

A. absinthium

0013Artemisia dracunculus L., French tarragon or estra-

gon, is a hardy perennial which grows wild through-

out central Europe and Asia, but is also widely

cultivated owing to the popularity of tarragon-

vinegar-based sauces and dressings. The volatile oil

of tarragon, produced in oil canals and glandular

hairs, is pale yellow to amber in color, with a delicate

spicy odor. The oil consists mainly of methyl chavicol,

tbl0002 Table 2 Uses of herbs of the family Compositae

Plant species Medicinal Foodindustryuses Colors Others

Achillea millefolium [ Salads, substitute in brewing or tobacco Cosmetics

Antennaria dioica [

Arctium lappa [ Salads, candied stalks, liqueurs

Arnica montana [

Artemisia aborotanum [[Insect repellent, cosmetics

Artemisia absinthium [ Tea, wine, stuffing

Artemisia dracunculoides [ Flavorings, dressing, vinegar [ Cosmetics

Artemisia dracunculus Flavorings, liqueurs

Artemisia vulgaris [ Tea, stuffing, flavoring, beer Insect repellent

Bidens tripartita [[

Calendula officinalis [ Sustitute for saffron, tea, salads, cheese,

and butter coloring

[ Cosmetics

Carlina acaulis [

Centaurea cyanus [[

Chamemelum nobile [ Beer, tea [ Cosmetics

Chrysanthemum balsamita [ Salads, beer, soups, cake, poultry Cosmetics

Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium [ Meat and poultry (reduces grease) Insect repellent

Chrysanthemum parthenium [ Meat and poultry (reduces grease) Insect repellent

Cichorium intybus [ Salads, coffee substitute [

Cnicus benedictus [ Salads, apertifs

Cynara scoymus [ Cooked vegetable

Echinacea angustifolia [

Erigeron canadensis [

Eupatorium cannabinum [

Eupatorium perfoliatum [

Eupatorium purpureum [

Gnaphalium uliginosum [

Grindelia camporium [

Helianthus annuus [ Oil, edible seeds, coffee substitute Lamp oil Paper

Hieracium pilosella [

Inula helenium [ Candied sweets, liqueurs, vermouths,

wines, bitters

Lactuca virosa [ Cosmetics

Lapsana communis [ Salads, cooked vegetable

Liatris odoratissima Cosmetics

Liatris spicata [ Insect repellent, cosmetics

Matricaria chamomilla [ Tea, flavor in alcoholic drinks [ Cosmetics

Petasites hybridus [

Santolina chaemaecyparissus [ Insect repellent

Senecio aureus [

Senecio vulgaris [

Silybum marianum [ Cooked vegetables

Solidago virgaurea [

Ta n a c e tu m v u l g a r e [

Ta r a x a c um o f f ic i n a l e [ Salads, wine, beer, coffee substitute Insect repellent

Tragopogon porrifolius Salads, cooked vegetables

Tu s s il a g o f a r f a r a [ Salads, wine Herbal tobacco

HERBS/Herbs of the Compositae 3079

typically 65%, as well as b-pinene, camphene, oci-

mene, limonene, menthol, and sabinene. Extracts of

tarragon are reported to have antiseptic, stimulant,

antibacterial, and antifungal activities. A mixture of

flavones and isocoumarins has also been found in the

shoots. French tarragon rarely sets viable seeds and

must be propagated from cuttings or by root division.

Seed is available from Russian tarragon (Artemisia

dracunculoides) which is markedly inferior since it

lacks the distinct odor and taste required for culinary

purposes. Recent micropropagation studies on

French tarragon have shown that tissue culture tech-

niques could provide an efficient means of propaga-

tion. Optimal growth was achieved using sterile shoot

tip explants, placed on mineral salts medium supple-

mented with sucrose and the phytohormones, benzyl

amino purine (BAP, a shoot-promoting phytohor-

mone) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA, a root-

promoting phytohormone). Rooting was maximized

by dipping new shoots in NAA or indole-3-butyric

acid (IBA, a root-promoting phytohormone).

0014 Artemisia afra Jacq, African wormwood, is indi-

genous to the mountainous regions of South Africa.

It is a bushy, branched perennial shrub growing up

to 1 m and can be propagated from seeds, cuttings,

and root pieces. It has a thin brownish bark and

green-gray leaves with a marked aromatic scent

when crushed. It possesses characteristic paniculate

aggregations of pale yellow inflorescences. A. afra is

one of the most widely used medicinal plants. Trad-

itionally, extracts have been applied to a whole range

of disease conditions, such as common cold, diabetes

mellitus, bronchial complaints, and stomach dis-

orders. The antibacterial properties of the volatile

oil are summarized in Table 3. The leaves are used

in a tea or as a leaf poultice, and the vapors from

boiling leaves can be inhaled. It has also been used as

an insect repellent and anthelmintic agent. The vola-

tile oil contains a-thujone, b-thujone, 1,8-cineole,

camphor, and a-pinene.

0015 Artemisia absinthium L., wormwood or absinthe,

is an erect-growing perennial native to Europe and

naturalized in northeastern North America. It is also

cultivated commercially in central and northwestern

USA. The volatile oil extracted from this very bitter

herb has a strong odor and acrid taste, and contains

mainly thujone and thujyl alcohols, as well as myr-

cene, a-pinene, nerol, limonene, and 1,8-cineole. The

oil, which can be poisonous, due to its high thujone

content, finds limited use in fragrance compounding

and external analgesics. Recently, essential oil dis-

tilled from A. absinthium collected in the Spanish

Pyrenees was found to contain no thujone, which

may be of significant interest to the food industry.

The bitter principle of wormwood is made up of the

glycosides, absinthin and absinthinin. The plant also

contains lignans, oligosaccharides, flavonol glyco-

sides, and tannins. Owing to its bitterness, worm-

wood has few culinary uses, but extracts are used to

flavor bitter drinks such as vermouth, absinthe, and

tonic water, as well as being used medicinally, chiefly

as an anthelmintic. (See Vermouth.) More recently,

extracts of A. absinthium have shown antibacterial

activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-nega-

tive bacteria, but not against yeasts.

0016Recent studies on wormwood have examined the

transformed or ‘hairy’ roots produced in vitro by the

infection of sterile explants with the soil bacterium,

Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Differences were noted in

the volatile oil profile of the transformed material

cultured in flasks and the normal field-grown roots.

Microscopic examination revealed a lack of maturity

in the transformed root which may account for these

differences (Figure 2 and 3).

Poisonous Plants

0017The family Compositae includes one of the most im-

portant poisonous plants in the UK, ragwort (Senecio

jacobaea). It is abundant on wasteland, beside roads,

and in pastures, where it is a troublesome weed. The

poisonous principles are pyrrolizidine alkaloids, many

tbl0003Table 3 Bactericidal properties (zone of inhibition in mm) of

Artemisia afra volatile oil

Organism Dilution of A. afra volatile oil

1.1 1.2 1.5 1.10

Acaligenes faecalis 9.8 6.0 5.2 5.2

Acinetobacter calcoacetica 17.8 9.4 6.6 5.7

Aeromonas hydrophila 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Bacillus subtilis 7.5 7.0 5.6 5.0

Beneckea natriegens 16.2 10.4 8.1 6.3

Brevibacterium linens 19.0 20.0 6.1 5.3

Brocothrix thermosphacta 13.3 9.4 7.0 6.6

Citrobacter freundii 11.5 9.6 8.8 7.6

Clostridium sporogenes 6.1 4.9 4.0 4.0

Enterobacter aerogenes 8.4 5.4 5.4 5.4

Enterococcus faecalis 9.9 7.0 6.0 5.3

Erwinia carotovora 7.6 4.0 4.0 4.0

Escherichia coli 6.4 6.2 5.8 5.3

Flavobacterium suaveolens 9.9 6.7 6.3 4.6

Klebsiella pneumoniae 15.5 10.1 8.1 7.1

Lactobacillus plantarum 7.6 6.2 6.2 4.8

Leuconostoc cremoris 9.4 8.2 4.0 4.0

Micrococcus luteus 8.6 5.6 4.0 4.0

Moraxella spp. 6.0 5.0 4.5 4.1

Proteus vulgaris 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6.4 4.8 4.8 4.0

Salmonella pullorum 5.3 4.5 4.3 4.2

Serratia marcescens 11.0 7.7 5.1 4.6

Staphylococcus aureus 8.3 6.9 5.0 4.2

Yersinia enterocolitica 8.3 6.5 6.0 5.8

3080 HERBS/Herbs of the Compositae

of which have been characterized and named, includ-

ing senecionine, seneciphylline, jaconine, and jaco-

bine. Poisoning in animals causes disorders of the

digestive and nervous systems.

0018 Another group of poisonous substances in the

Compositae comprises terpenoid compounds, espe-

cially sesquiterpene lactones (present in Lactua virosa,

Artemisia douglasii, Achillea millefolium, Matri-

caria chamomilla,andCichorium endivia). These

compounds can cause allergic skin reactions. Arnica

montana and great burdock (Arctium lappa) can also

cause skin irritation owing to attachment of flower

heads by hooked bracts.

See also: Biotechnology in Food Production;

Colorants (Colourants): Properties and Determination of

Natural Pigments; Essential Oils: Properties and Uses;

Vermouth

Further Reading

Arino A, Arberas I, Renobales G, Arriaga S and Dominguez

JB (1999) Essential oil of Artemisia absinthium L. from

the Spanish Pyrenees. Journal of Essential Oil Research

11(2): 182–184.

Balza F, Jamieson L and Towers GHN (1985) Chemical

constituents of the aerial parts of Artemisia dracunulus.

Journal of Natural Products 48(2): 339–341.

Deans SG and Kennedy AI (2000) Artemisia absinthium. In:

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – Industrial Profiles:

Artemisia. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Harwood

Academic.

Dulger B, Ceylan M, Alitsaous M and Ugurlu E (1999) Anti-

microbial activity of Artemisia absinthium L. Turkish

Journal of Biology 23(3): 377–384.

Firouzi R, Azadbakht M and Nabinedjad A (1998) Anti-

listerial activity of essential oils of some plants. Journal

of Applied Animal Research 14(1): 75–80.

Hamill JD, Parr AJ, Rhodes MJC, Robins RJ and Walton

NJ (1987) New routes to plant secondary products.

Biotechnology 5: 800–804.

Kennedy AI, Deans SG, Svoboda KP, Gray AI and Water-

man PG (1991) Comparison of the volatile oil from

fermenter-grown transformed ‘hairy’ roots and field-

grown roots of Artemisia absinthium L. (wormwood).

Proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of Europe

Symposium, Bioformation of Flavours. London: Kings

College.

Kennedy AI, Deans SG, Svoboda KP, Gray AI and Water-

man PG (1991) Volatile oils from normal and trans-

formed roots of Artemisia absinthium. Phytochemistry

32: 1449–1451.

Lourenc¸o PML, Figuieredo AC, Barroso JG et al. (1997)

Achillea millefolium hairy roots: growth, essential oil

composition and antibacterial activity in comparison

with parent plant roots. Proceedings of the IV Iberian

Congress on Biotechnology. Braga, Portugal: University

of Minho.

Mackay WA and Kitto SL (1988) Factors affecting in vitro

shoot proliferation of French tarragon. Journal of the

American Society for Horticultural Science 113(2):

282–287.

Pino JA, Rosado A and Fuentes V (1998) Chemical com-

position of the leaf oil of Achillea millefolium L. grown

in Cuba. Journal of Essential Oil Research 10(4):

427–428.

Repcak M, Halasova J, Honcarn R and Podhradsky D

(1980) The content and composition of the essential oil

in the course of anthodium development in wild chamo-

mile. Biologia Plantarum 22(3): 183–191.

Simon JE, Chadwick AF and Craker LE (1984) Achillea

millefolium L.). In Herbs, an Indexed Bibliography

1971–1980. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Thorsell W, Mikiver A, Malander I and Tunon H (1998)

Efficacy of plant extracts and oils as mosquito repel-

lants. Phytomedicine 5(4): 311–323.

fig0002 Figure 2 (see color plate 94) Transverse section of Artemisia

absinthium (wormwood) root showing vascular bundle. 200. Re-

produced from Herbs: Herbs of the Compositae, Encyclopaedia of

Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson

RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

fig0003 Figure 3 (see color plate 95) Transverse section of Artemisia

absinthium (wormwood) root showing vascular bundle in trans-

formed root. 200. Reproduced from Herbs: Herbs of the Compo-

sitae, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and

Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993,

Academic Press.

HERBS/Herbs of the Compositae 3081

Herbs of the Labiatae

S Kokkini, R Karousou and E Hanlidou, Aristotle

University, Thessaloniki, Greece

Introduction

0001 The Labiatae (Lamiaceae) family consists of approxi-

mately 3500 species centered chiefly in the Mediterra-

nean area, although some small groups have a local

distribution in Australia, South-west Asia, and South

America. The family contains many culinary or

flavoring herbs, which have been widely used, since

antiquity, as spices, teas, or traditional medicines.

Several members of the family are also used as sources

of essential oils.

Morphological Characteristics

0002 The Labiatae are annual or perennial herbaceous

plants or shrubs, often densely glandular and aro-

matic. Their stems are usually four-angled. The leaves

are usually simple and always opposite. The flowers

are hermaphrodite or male-sterile (functionally

female) and form whorls (verticillasters) that are

often arranged in spikes, heads, racemes, or cymes.

The calyces are usually five-lobed and two-lipped;

rarely, the calyx is one-lipped or actinomorphic. The

corollas are sympetalous and two-lipped; rarely, they

are one-lipped or more or less actinomorphic. They

usually have four stamens, rarely reduced to two;

the upper (posterior) pair is usually shorter than the

lower (anterior). The ovary is superior, doubly carpel-

late but appearing equally four-lobed when mature.

The style is single, usually gynobasic, shortly bifid

above. The fruit consists of four dry (very rarely

fleshy), one-seeded nutlets.

0003 Besides the non-glandular or clothing hairs, the

leaves and other aerial parts of the Labiatae plants

bear a great number of glandular trichomes. Two

main types of these secretory structures occur in the

Labiatae: the glandular hairs (capitate hairs) and the

glandular scales (peltate hairs). The former type is

very variable in stalk length and head shape, whereas

the latter is more or less stable, consisting of a uni- or

bicellular foot, a uni- or bicellular stalk, and an (up

to) 18-celled head. The bulk of the essential oil is

thought to be produced and accumulated in the

glandular scales. Because of their size and number,

they can be seen as bright yellowish dots when the

lower leaf surface is examined with a hand lens

(Figure 1).

Chemical Characteristics

0004The active ingredients, to which the Labiate herbs owe

their flavors and aroma, are the essential oils. They are

usually obtained by steam- or water-distilling their

fresh or dried aerial parts. However, though the

Labiatae are generally considered as an aromatic

family, they include several genera whose members

produce only traces of essential oils and are almost

scentless. The genera of the subfamily Lamioideae

consist of essential oil-poor species (e.g., Phlomis,

Sideritis), whereas the subfamily Nepetoideae is

quite variable. The different Nepetoideae genera may

include oil-poor (e.g., Lycopus), oil-poor and oil-rich

(e.g., Salvia, Micromeria) or only oil-rich (e.g.,

Mentha) species.

0005A variety of highly valued constituents have been

found as main components of the Labiatae oils. How-

ever, the essential oil profile that determines the eco-

nomic value of a Labiate herb may vary greatly within

a species. As a result, plants belonging to a single

species may not be used for the same purpose. How-

ever, there are numerous examples of similarity in

the oils of widely diverse genera, and thus different

species are used similarly.

0006The total essential oil content and the quantita-

tive and/or qualitative oil composition of a single

species depend on the season, the local environmen-

tal conditions and the genetic differences. The age

and the season at which each herb is harvested are

often of considerable importance, since the total oil

amount and the relative proportions of its active

constituents vary throughout the year (seasonal vari-

ation). Sage plants, for example, produce in late

summer almost double the amount of the essential

oil that is present in spring, whereas the highest

fig0001Figure 1 Lower side of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum leaf

(Greek oregano) as it appears under the stereoscope ( 32).

3082 HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae

thujone content can be obtained in late autumn.

Oregano plants grown in areas with mild winter

temperatures and a typical Mediterranean summer

(low precipitation and high temperature) are much

richer in essential oil (up to 30 times more) than

those found in areas suffering from low winter tem-

peratures. Similarly, the total phenol content (carva-

crolþthymol) of oregano plants is much higher in

areas with a Mediterranean type of climate than in

areas characterized by a Continental climate (geo-

graphic–climatic variation).

0007 Striking differences in qualitative oil composition

between individuals of a Labiatae species suggest the

presence of chemotypes or chemical races (genetic

variation). The different chemical races are distin-

guished on the basis of the presence or absence of a

particular biosynthetic pathway, leading to the

formation of a number of compounds and not on

the presence or absence of a single compound. Differ-

ent chemotypes are often encountered in the wild

populations of Mentha, Thymus, and Satureja

species, and their oils are exploited for different

applications. One of the most variable species is

Mentha spicata with four distinct chemotypes: (1)

essential oil rich in linalool and/or linalyl acetate

(plants with a fragrant smell), (2) oil rich in carvone/

dihydrocarvone (sweet smell), (3) oil rich in piperite-

none and/or piperitone oxide (musty smell), and

(4) oil rich in methone/isomenthone/pulegone (pun-

gent smell).

0008 It has been established that several of the essential

oil constituents are biologically active, with signifi-

cant antibacterial, antifungal, insecticidal, and anti-

oxidant properties. However, besides essential oils,

the members of Labiatae produce other types of

biologically active compounds. Diterpenes, which

present strong antibacterial and antifungal activities,

occur in several genera, such as Salvia and Sideritis.

Iridoids (monoterpene lactones) are mainly found in

members of the subfamily Lamioideae (e.g., Ajuga,

Phlomis, Scutellaria,andLeonurus spp.) and more

rarely in Nepetoideae (e.g., Nepeta, Salvia, and

Satureja spp.). Several of these show insecticidal,

cytotoxic, and cytostatic activities. Among the phen-

olic constituents, rosmarinic acid is of great interest,

especially for its antioxidant and antiinflammatory

properties. It is produced by several taxa, including

Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Melissa

officinalis, and Origanum vulgare.

0009 The commonest Labiatae herbs used in the food

industry are listed below under their commercial

names. A commercial name may attributed to a spe-

cific chemotype or to a particular species or even to a

group of species that have a similar oil composition

and consequently a similar flavor and use.

Balm

0010Balm (Melissa officinalis L.) is a perennial herb up to

100 cm in height, which is native to South Europe,

North Africa, and Anatolia and introduced in almost

all temperate regions. It has broadly ovate leaves and

white or light pink flowers arranged in axillary

whorls. Three subspecies of Melissa officinalis are

recognized, but only subsp. officinalis is cultivated

for its aromatic foliage, which has a strong, pleasant,

lemon-like odor.

0011The aromatic balm leaves are often used in bever-

ages and as a seasoning in salads, dressings and

sauces, as well as in cooked foods, e.g., in soups and

stews. Balm leaves yield a low amount of essential

oils, up to 0.5% vol./dry wt. Balm oil is considered as

a mild spasmolytic agent and is employed as a flavor

ingredient in alcoholic beverages. The main com-

pounds of the commercial oils are citronellal, geranial

(citral a), and neral (citral b).

Basil

0012Basil is obtained from the foliage of Ocimum basi-

licum L. (sweet basil), an annual herbaceous plant

up to 100 cm in height. It is native to tropical Asia,

Africa and America and widely cultivated in pots

and gardens in Europe, South-west Asia and the

USA. The leaves are ovate and vary in size,

depending on the cultivated variety, from the small

leaves of the common basil to the large leaves of

lettuce leaf basil. The verticillasters of the white or

pink flowers are arranged in terminal racemes. Dif-

ferent cultivated forms, considered distinct by herb-

alists (e.g., O. minutum L.), are not recognized

taxonomically.

0013The dried sweet basil leaves have a sweet, fra-

grant odor, and their taste is aromatic, warm, and

slightly pungent. Basil is considered as the finest of

all aromatic herbs and is widely used to flavor

cooked vegetables, tomato-paste products, and

fish. It is sometimes used with, or as a substitute

of, oregano to flavor pizza and spaghetti sauce and

is employed together with other spices in the manu-

facture of vinegar, mustard, and sausages. Though

not used in large quantities, sweet basil oil is used

quite extensively in the flavoring of several food

products, including those for confectionery, alco-

holic beverages (liqueurs), baked goods, and condi-

ments. The commercial essential oils are usually

methyl-chavicol (an isomer of anethole) and/or lina-

lool rich. However, O. basilicum oils are particu-

larly variable and may also have high amounts of

methyl-cinammate, geraniol, eugenol, and methyl-

eugenol.

HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae 3083

Hyssop

0014 Hyssopus officinalis L., an aromatic shrub growing

on dry hills and rocky grounds, is native from Portugal

and Spain eastwards to India. It is naturalized in the

USA, where it grows in gardens and along roadsides.

Hyssop plants are up to 60 cm high and have linear

or almost linear leaves, actinomorphic calyces and

violet–blue, pink, or white flowers in verticillasters,

forming a terminal spike-like inflorescence. H. offici-

nalis is a morphologically variable species, separated

into four subspecies. The cultivated plants belong to

subsp. officinalis.

0015 The dried aromatic hyssop leaves are considered as

a gentle stimulant used in medicines, tonics, bitters,

and alcoholic liqueurs. Hyssop oil is employed mostly

in the flavoring of beverages, e.g., bitters, tonics, and

especially of French-type liqueurs. The essential oils

produced by H. officinalis have a variable compos-

ition, mainly consisting of isopinocamphone (the

major component of commercial oils), pinocam-

phone, pinocarvone, and 1,8-cineole.

Marjoram

0016 The vernacular name marjoram comprises several

Labiatae herbs belonging to different species or even

genera. The best known are as follows:

Spanish Marjoram

0017 Spanish marjoram is obtained from Thymus masti-

china L., a dwarf shrub up to 50 cm in height, which

grows wild in Spain and Portugal. It has ovate to

elliptic leaves, almost actinomorphic calyces, whitish

corollas and an inflorescence of somewhat plumose

appearance.

0018 Spanish marjoram, also known as wild or forest

marjoram, has a different odor from that of sweet

marjoram, being harsher and eucalyptus-like, due to

the high amount of 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol). Spanish

marjoram is used in the manufacture of fragrances,

but also in the food industry to flavor canned and

processed meats and sauces. The essential oils pro-

duced by wild Th. mastichina plants may also have

high amounts of linalool.

Sweet Marjoram

0019 Sweet marjoram is obtained from Origanum major-

ana L. (syn. Majorana hortensis Moench., M. vulgaris

Miller), a dwarf shrub of dry and rocky places, native

on Cyprus and the adjacent part of South Turkey. It

is cultivated in several countries in Europe, Africa,

America, and Asia. The plants are up to 60 cm high

and have ovate, whitish or greyish leaves, one-lipped

calyces and white corollas. The flowers are arranged

in spikes forming a paniculate inflorescence.

0020Because of their fragrant odor and pleasant, highly

aromatic, slightly sharp and spicy taste, the dried

leaves of O. majorana are widely used as flavoring

agents for dressings, egg and vegetable dishes, soups,

stews, cheese, liver, Polish sausages, and fancy meats.

The characteristic compounds of the commercially

exploited marjoram essential oils are terpinen-4-ol,

a-terpinene, g-terpinene, a-terpineol and cis-sabinene

hydrate, occurring in variable quantities. O. major-

ana also produces essential oils with different

compositions, which are either rich in linalool or p-

cymene and its biosynthetically related compounds

thymol and carvacrol.

Mint

0021Plants producing essential oils rich in menthane-type

compounds are frequently found within the Labiatae,

commonly known as the mint family. However, those

that today constitute the commercial mint herbs are

species of the genus Mentha.

0022Mentha species are perennial herbs up to 150 cm

in height, usually growing in damp sites. The white,

pink, or lilac flowers are arranged in dense, many-

flowered verticillasters, which, in some cases, form a

long and spike-like inflorescence or a terminal head.

The genus is taxonomically difficult, and the identifi-

cation of a single plant is often problematic, since, in

addition to much morphological plasticity, most of

the species are capable of hybridization with each

other. Besides the high morphological variability,

great differences in chemical composition of the

essential oils often occur within a species. As a result,

although the genus consists of approximately 25

species and rather fewer hybrids, more than 1000

names of different taxonomic rank have been attrib-

uted over the past 200 years to the morphological

and/or chemical variants of the mint plants. Among

the different Mentha species and hybrids, those that

have achieved economic importance are as follows.

Cornmint

0023Extremely menthol-rich essential oils (up to 80%

menthol) are produced by Mentha arvensis var.

piperascens, mainly plants cultivated since antiquity

in Japan and during recent years in China, India, and

Brazil. The cornmint plants are distinguished by their

leafy at apex inflorescence, which consists of remote

flower verticillasters.

0024The cornmint oil (also known as Japanese or Chi-

nese or Brazilian peppermint oil) is valued as a source

of l-menthol, which is generally obtained by simple

3084 HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae

freeze-crystallization. The dementholized oil is used

as inexpensive, rather harsh peppermint-like oil.

Pennyroyal

0025 The leaves and flowering parts of Mentha pulegium

L. (European pennyroyal) plants grown wild in west-

ern and central Europe as well as in the Mediterra-

nean region are traditionally used for the preparation

of teas and, to a limited extent, for food flavoring

(soups, stuffings). M. pulegium is distinguished from

the other mint species by its inflorescence, which

consists of remote verticillasters but is not leafy at

apex (Figure 2). Furthermore, M. pulegium is distin-

guished from the other mint species by the calyx,

which has unequal teeth (weakly two-lipped), while

the corolla tube is gibbous beneath. The North

American pennyroyal is Hedeoma pulegioides (L.)

Pers., an annual plant growing in North America,

which has a similar odor to M. pulegium.

0026 Since Roman times, herbalists have recommended

pennyroyal as an abortifacient herb. Recent data sug-

gested that pulegone, the ketone, often the major

constituent of pennyroyal oil, has hepatotoxic effects

to animals and man.

Peppermint

0027 Mentha piperita L., a sterile hybrid of the species

M. aquatica L. (Figure 2) and M. spicata, is probably

the most important commercial aromatic herb in the

world today from the standpoint of the size of the

area cultivated for oil distillation. The peppermint

leaves have a characteristic, sweetish, strong odor

and an aromatic, warm, pungent taste, with a cooling

aftertaste.

0028 The essential oils of M. piperita cultivated plants

are characterized by the preponderance of menthone,

isomenthone, and the different isomers of menthol.

Peppermint oil finds wide application in the flavoring

of chewing gums, sugar confectionery, ice creams,

desserts, baked goods, tobacco, and alcoholic bever-

ages. It is also frequently employed in the flavoring of

pharmaceutical and oral preparations.

Spearmint

0029 Under the vernacular name ‘spearmint,’ different

Mentha species and hybrids producing carvone-rich

essential oils are commerically exploited. In par-

ticular, two main ‘types’ of spearmint – Native and

Scottish – are widely cultivated, mainly in the USA

but also in China, Europe, and South Africa, for

the commercial production of their essential oil. The

native spearmint oil is obtained either from the

species M. spicata L. (Figure 2) or from the sterile

hybrid M. villoso-nervata Opiz. (M. longifolia

L. M. spicata), whereas the Scottish spearmint oil

is produced from the hybrid M. gentilis L. nm. car-

diaca Gray (M. arvensis L. M. spicata).

0030Spearmint plants are familiar garden herbs, and

they are often used to flavor vegetables, soups, meat

and fish sauces, and salads. The spearmint oil, char-

acterized by the high participation of carvone, dihy-

drocarvone, and their related alcohols and esters, is

mainly used in the flavoring of chewing gums, tooth-

pastes, and other oral products.

Oregano

0031Oregano, one of the most popular herbs throughout

the world, presents a serious problem to everyone

trying to establish the identity of its botanical

source. A vast number of species in over a dozen

genera of different families have been referred to

‘oregano’ in the literature. Oregano is in fact a

characteristic flavor produced by a number of plant

species that yield essential oils with a more or less

high content of carvacrol (noncrystallizable phenol).

The flavor of oregano recently became very popular

all over the world mainly because the fast food

industry supports the ethnically based products.

Dried leaves and flowering parts of different ore-

gano plants, commonly known as ‘the pizza herb,’

are widely used to flavor food products, such as

salads, vegetables dishes, fried potatoes, meats,

sauces, sausages, and canned goods. Oregano is

also employed as an ingredient in chilli powder

and is used in chilli con carne and several other

(a)

(b)

(c)

fig0002Figure 2 (a) Mentha aquatica; (b) M.spicata; (c) M. pulegium.

HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae 3085

Mexican dishes. Oregano oil sometimes replaces the

dried herbs in the food flavoring. Several reports

have mentioned its high antibacterial, fungicidal,

insecticidal, and antioxidant activity. The species,

which are widely used as oregano under different

vernacular names, are described below.

Greek Oregano

0032 Greek oregano consists of dried leaves and flowering

parts of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum (Link) lets-

waart (syn. O. heracleoticum auct. non L.), and on

commercial grounds, it is considered to be of the

highest quality. It is a woody perennial up to 100 cm

in height, and is found in the Balkan Peninsula and

Turkey. It is distinguished from the other Origanum

species by its dense spikes, clearly distinct from

stems and branches, green calyces with five (sub)eq-

ual teeth and two-lipped white corollas (Figure 3).

Furthermore, it is characterized by the conspicuously

glandular-punctate (visible even to naked eye) leaves

and calyces. It is mainly collected from the wild from

Balkan countries and Turkey. The cultivation in

gardens and open fields is nowadays very popular in

the Mediterranean countries.

0033O. vulgare subsp. hirtum plants often yield an

extremely high amount of essential oil (up to 8%

dry weight basis), and their carvacrol content may

reach the 95% of the oil produced. However, plants

having a high thymol content (up to 85%) are not

infrequent in the wild populations. In these cases,

carvacrol, the compound responsible for characteriz-

ing a plant as being of the oregano type, is a minor

constituent.

Spanish Oregano

0034Spanish oregano consists of leaves and flowers of

Coridothymus capitatus (L.) Reichenb. fil. (Thymus

capitatus Hoffmans & Link, Satureja capitata L.), a

shrub 50–150 cm in height, with narrowly elliptical

leaves, dorsally flattened calyces, and violet corollas

(Figure 4). The flowers are arranged in dense heads.

The plants are variable with respect to their essential

oil composition, being either carvacrol or thymol-

rich. Despite its name, Spanish oregano is common

throughout the Mediterranean area.

Turkish Oregano

0035Origanum onites L. (O. smyrnaeum L., Majorana

onites (L.) Bentham) is a perennial plant, up to

100 cm in height, of the east Mediterranean area. It

is abundantly found in many of the Greek islands

of the Aegean, extending to western and southern

Turkey. Turkish oregano is distinguished from other

Origanum species by the form of inflorescence (spikes

arranged in false corymbs) and the one-lipped caly-

ces. Hybrids between O. onites and O. vulgare subsp.

hirtum are often found in the wild. Turkish oregano

yields a smaller amount of essential oil (up to 4%)

than Greek oregano, and its carvacrol content may

reach the 77% of the total oil. It is mainly collected

from the wild, but it is also cultivated in west Turkey.

0036Other species of the Labiatae, locally used as ore-

gano or za’atar (the name used by the Arabs) condi-

ments, are Satureja thymbra L., Thymbra spicata L.,

Origanum compactum Bentham, O. elongatum

(Bonnet) Emberger & Maire and the ‘Biblical hyssop,’

O. syriacum L. (syn. O. maru L., Majorana syriaca

(L.) Kost.); all of them are native in the Mediterranean

region. Mexican oregano consists of dried leaves of

Lippia graveolens Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth, a species

belonging to the family Verbenaceae. Mexico is the

main USA supplier.

0037Origanum dictamnus L. (Dittany of Crete), an

endemic species of the Greek island Kriti (Figure 5)

and well known since antiquity for its therapeutical

fig0003 Figure 3 (see color plate 82) Origanum vulgare.

3086 HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae

properties, is employed in the flavoring of alcoholic

beverages (Martini).

Rosemary

0038 Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is an evergreen

shrub, up to 2 m high, native to the Mediterranean

region, and cultivated in several European countries

and in the USA. It has linear leaves green on the upper

surface, with numerous branched hairs making their

lower surface whitish. The pale blue, rarely pink, or

white flowers are borne in verticillasters produced in

the axils of the leaves.

0039Dried rosemary leaves are aromatic and yield a

slightly camphoraceous odor when crushed. They

are used to flavour salads, vegetable dishes, soups,

meat dishes, sausages, and sauces. Rosemary oil,

widely employed in cosmetic products, sometimes

replaces the dried leaves in the flavoring of food

products. a-Pinene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, and bor-

neol are usually the main rosemary oil constituents.

Oils with a decreased amount of a-pinene and

fig0004 Figure 4 (see color plate 83) Coridothymus capitatus.

fig0005 Figure 5 Origanum dictamnus.

HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae 3087

camphor and increased amounts of 1,8-cineole and

borneol are judged to be of a better quality.

Sage

0040 The vernacular name ‘sage’ is ascribed to different

aromatic species of the genus Salvia, which produce

essential oils rich in 1,8-cineole, a- and b-thujone, or

camphor. The dried sage leaves are highly aromatic

and widely employed in the flavoring of sauces,

pork and other meats, poultry stuffings, ground

meats (hamburgers), baked fishes, soups, sausages,

and canned foods. The essential oils have a fresh-

herbaceous odor and are used in perfumery (indus-

trial, soap, or cosmetic perfumes), in flavoring

formulations for alcoholic beverages, liqueurs,

canned meat, or spicy sauces; they also find applica-

tion in pharmaceutical preparations.

Dalmatian Sage

0041 Dalmatian sage consists of dried leaves of Salvia

officinalis L., the most widely used sage plant. Its

native occurrence is restricted to Italy and the western

part of the Balkan Peninsula, but it is widely culti-

vated and naturalized in parts of southern and south

central Europe. Cultivated as a culinary herb or as an

ornament, it may be found all over Europe, where it

was possibly introduced by the Romans in ancient

times or by monks during the Middle Ages. It is a

low (up to 60 cm) shrub, with oblong leaves, white-

pubescent beneath, grey–green to silverous above.

The violet–blue, pink, or white flowers are arranged

in axillary verticillasters (Figure 6).

0042 Salvia officinalis oils are mainly characterized by

the predominance of a- and b-thujone (up to 65% of

the total oil). However 1,8-cineole and camphor are

often detected in considerable amounts (up to 22 and

38% of the total oil, respectively). In commercial

grounds, oils with a combined thujyl ketone (a-and

b-thujone) content more than 30% and camphor

content less than 20% are most valued. Dalmatian

sage oil is mainly produced along the Adriatic coast of

the former Yugoslavia and Albania, whereas smaller

quantities are distilled in Bulgaria, France, Turkey,

and Germany.

Greek Sage

0043 Greek sage is obtained from the foliage of Salvia

fruticosa Miller (syn. S. triloba L. fil.). It is an east

Mediterranean shrub, extending westwards to south

Italy. Introduced by the ancient Greeks and Phoen-

icians, it was cultivated in the Iberian Peninsula,

where nowadays it is naturalized. Greek sage is dis-

tinguished from Dalmatian sage by the yellowish

green, often three-lobed leaves and the appressed

white-tomentose stems.

0044Although there is a remarkable variation in wild-

growing plants, Greek sage oils are generally charac-

terized by high levels of 1,8-cineole (up to 66% of

the total oil) and low levels of thujyl ketones and

camphor. S. fruticosa has been renowned since ancient

times for its pharmaceutical properties. Nowadays,

the leaf decoction is used in traditional medicine for

the treatment of several diseases. The essential oil is a

folk remedy for toothache and intestinal complaints.

Spanish Sage

0045Salvia lavandulifolia Vahl, a west Mediterranean

shrub up to 60 cm high, is employed as a flavoring

agent under the common name ‘Spanish sage.’ It can

be distinguished from the other sage species by its

narrowly oblong to linear leaves. Spanish sage oil is

mainly produced in Spain; it is characterized by the

preponderance of 1,8-cineole and camphor (up to 59

and 37% of the total oil, respectively), whereas thujyl

ketones are detected in negligible amounts (up to

1.3% of the total oil).

fig0006Figure 6 (see color plate 84) Salvia officinalis.

3088 HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae