Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

Cretan Sage

0046 Salvia pomifera L. (Cretan sage) is an east Mediterra-

nean shrub restricted to Greece and Turkey, and

mainly distinguished by its membranous, often purple

calyces. Cretan sage leaves are exploited on a local

scale, often alternatively to Greek sage. However, its

oils are always characterized by extremely high

amounts of thujyl ketones (58–83% of the total oil),

whereas the amounts of 1,8-cineole and camphor are

negligible.

0047 Salvia sclarea L. (Clary sage) is a short-lived

perennial herb, widely distributed in Europe and

South-west and Central Asia. Although it is called

sage, its essential oils are quite different from the

other sage species, being rich in linalyl acetate

and/or linalool (up to 80% of the total oil). Clary

sage oil is mainly produced in the former USSR,

USA, Bulgaria, and France, whereas minor amounts

are distilled in India, Switzerland, Morocco, and

several other countries. It is widely used in perfumery

but also in flavoring wines and other alcoholic

beverages.

Savory

0048 Plants of two species of Satureja, which produce

essential oils rich in carvacrol, are employed mainly

as culinary herbs under the common name savory:

S. hortenis L. and S. montana L. S. hortensis,

known as Summer savory, is an annual plant, up

to 35 cm high, native to south Europe and Anatolia,

and widely cultivated as a pot herb. The main area

of production is France. It has linear leaves and

white or lilac flowers arranged in verticillasters,

borne in the axils of the upper leaves. S. montana,

known as winter savory, is a native plant of south

Europe. It belongs to a group of related species,

growing wild in parts of the Mediterranean region.

Among them, only S. montana is used on a larger-

than-local scale. It is a small shrub, up to 60 cm

high, with lanceolate leaves and white or pale pink

flowers arranged in verticillasters, in the axils of the

leaf-like bracts.

0049The value of the two savories is in the high carva-

crol content, which gives a fresh, herbaceous, spicy

odor with slightly sharp notes, reminiscent of

oregano. The two herbs have a similar odor, though

summer savory’s odour is thought to be more rounded

and harsh. They are used to flavor foods, such as

sauces, soups, sausages, and canned meats. Savory

oil sometimes replaces the dried leaves in food

flavoring. The essential oils of S. montana wild grow-

ing plants are variable and, besides carvacrol, may

have high amounts of p-cymene, thymol, linalool,

borneol, or bornyl acetate.

Thyme

0050Under the name ‘thyme,’ plants of Thymus species,

which produce essential oils rich in thymol, are

employed for culinary or medicinal purposes. The

species mostly used are Th. vulgaris L. (Figure 7) and

Th. zygis L. and occasionally other species, like Th.

serpyllum L. or Th. pulegioides L.

0051The herbs have a fragrant odor and a pungent taste,

and are used in several food products, such as soups,

meat, liver and pork sausages, fish, and poultry

fig0007 Figure 7 Thymus vulgaris.

HERBS/Herbs of the Labiatae 3089

dressings. Thyme oil is widely employed in many

pharmaceuticals and oral preparations. The essential

oils produced by wild growing plants of most Thymus

species are particularly variable. Several compounds

have been found as main oil constituents of Th. vul-

garis and Th. zygis plants grown in the wild, such as

carvacrol, 1,8-cineole, geraniol, linalool, terpinen-

4-ol, a-terpineol, or trans-sabinene hydrate.

See also: Essential Oils: Properties and Uses; Isolation

and Production; Herbs: Herbs and Their Uses

Further Reading

Anderson IB, Mullen WH, Meeker JE et al. (1996) Penny-

royal toxicity: Measurement of toxic levels in two cases

and review of the literature. Annals of Internal Medicine

124: 726–733.

Boelens MH and Boelens H (1997) Chemical and sensory

evaluation of three sage oils. Perfumer & Flavorist 22:

19–40.

Harborne JB, Baxter H and Moss GP (1996) Dictionary of

Plant Toxins, pp. 310–311. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Harley RM and Reynolds T (eds) (1992) Advances in the

Labiatae Sciences. London: Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew.

Kokkini S (1991) Chemical races within the genus Mentha

L. In: Linskens HF and Jackson JF (eds) Essential Oils

and Waxes. Modern Methods of Plant Analysis, vol. 12,

pp. 61–75. Berlin: Springer.

Lagouri V, Blekas G, Tsimidou M, Kokkini S and Boskou D

(1993) Composition and antioxidant activity of essential

oils from oregano plants grown wild in Greece. Zeit-

schrift fu

r Lebensmitteluntersuchung und -forschung

197: 20–23.

Lawrence BM (1979–1995) The Essential Oils 1976–1994,

vols. 1–5. Wheaton: Allured Publishing Corporation.

Padulosi S (ed.) (1997) Oregano. Promoting the Conser-

vation and Use of Under Utilized and Neglected Crops.

14. Proceedings of the IPGRI International Workshop on

Oregano, 8–12 May 1996, CHIEAM, Valenzano (Bari).

Rome: IPGRI.

Werker E (1993) Function of essential oil-secreting glandu-

lar hairs in aromatic plants of the Lamiaceae – a review.

Flavour and Fragrance Journal 8: 249–255.

Herbs of the Umbelliferae

L A Shelef, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA

Background

0001 Herbs of the family Umbelliferae are aromatic plants

grown primarily for their use in flavoring of foods,

liqueurs, and confectionery. The name Umbelliferae

predates Linnaeus and the name Apiaceae was pro-

posed by John Lindley in 1830 for the same family.

Both Apiaceae and Umbelliferae are in current use.

0002The majority of the Umbelliferae plants are indi-

genous to the Mediterranean countries, where they

grow naturally. Brought to northern Europe, they

have adapted to climatic and growing conditions of

many other countries where they are now cultivated.

A point of interest in regard to members of the

Umbelliferae plants is that some of them are sources

of spices (the seeds) and herbs (leaves), as well as

being consumed as vegetables (the bulbs of fennel

and celery, for example). The characteristic odor

and flavor of members of this family are associated

with the major specific essential oil or oils in the

edible portions, and particularly in the fruit or seed,

in which the content is highest. Within a species, the

content of the oil varies, depending on the plant

variety, climatic and soil conditions, and storage or

processing methods.

0003Most of the major volatile oils of the Umbelliferae

seeds possess medicinal properties that were valued in

the past. They have been considered mainly for their

stimulant, carminative, pectoral, and palliative prop-

erties. Today, the volatile oils are prized less for their

medicinal uses than for their flavor and aroma. While

their concentration in the seeds is higher than in the

leaves, the composition is often different, making the

aroma of the herbs generally more delicate.

0004Production practices of spices and herbs vary

widely and these affect the microbial content of the

products. Aerobic plate counts of 10

microorgan-

isms per gram at retail are common in many spices.

Mold growth and formation of mycotoxins, the

fungal metabolites, are also of concern in moist prod-

ucts. Cleaning processes and treatment with ethylene

oxide eliminate a large portion of the microorganisms

present, as well as insects and insect eggs. Propylene

oxide is similar to ethylene oxide, although its pene-

trating ability is lower. While effective, fumigation

with gases has been questioned because of toxicity.

Irradiation treatment is also effective, and a dose of

up to 30 kGy is allowed for dry spices and herbs. The

treatment is allowed under Codex Alimentarius, and

doses and labeling requirements vary from country

to country. Specifications for acceptable contamin-

ation levels in products are provided by trade associ-

ations (e.g., American Spice Trade Association,

European Herb Trade Association, British Herb

Trade Association).

0005Essential oils of a large number of spices have

been shown to possess antibacterial and antifungal

properties. The ones found in Umbelliferae plants

are anethole and, to a lesser extent, also eugenol.

3090 HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae

Anethole, a major constituent of the essential oils

of anise seed and fennel, has been reported to be

effective against various foodborne microorganisms,

including pathogens such as Salmonella spp. and

Staphylococcus aureus. Essential oils and extracts of

cumin and dill have been reported to be effective in

preventing spoilage of wiener-type sausage.

0006 Spices are also known for their antioxidant activity.

While umbelliferous seeds such as caraway, celery,

cumin, and fennel have some antioxidant properties,

they are not as effective as spices of other families in

preventing rancidity.

0007 Seeds of the major members of the Umbelliferae

family are discussed first in this article, after which

the leaf types of the family are reviewed.

Umbelliferae Seeds

0008 Seeds of the Umbelliferae family include anise, cara-

way, celery, coriander, cumin, dill, and fennel. Drying

the seeds is essential for development of full aroma

and for storage stability. In traditional methods, the

plants are sun-dried after harvest. Commercially

dried products are dehydrated under controlled con-

ditions to a specified moisture content, uniform color

and, when reconstituted, they retain the flavor and

color. The proximate composition of umbelliferous

seeds and their mineral content are shown in Table 1.

0009 Grinding the seeds releases the natural flavors

and permits control of flavor intensity and uniform

distribution. It also improves the appearance of the

food products and the economy in use of the seed.

Spice-grinding techniques influence the flavor. Heat

evolved during grinding causes flavor deterioration. In

modern milling techniques such as cryomilling, the

process is accomplished at very low temperatures,

generally below 70



C, by direct contact with liquid

nitrogen refrigerant. In addition to the low tempera-

ture, the process protects the spice oils from oxidation

by replacing the air in the mill. It also results in very

fine grinding of the spices since the low temperatures

render the seeds very brittle. Freeze-ground spices

display better retention of aroma, flavor, and color.

Moreover, the treatment lowers the microbial load.

0010Spices are stored in sealed containers under dry,

cool conditions. Evaporation of aroma from the

intact seed is slow, but once the seed is ground, evap-

oration is rapid, and oxidation and degradation take

place. The shelf-life of the spice is shortened, and

storage for no longer than 3 months is generally

recommended.

0011Essential oils are the chief components of spices.

The essential oil compounds and contents of the um-

belliferous seeds are presented in Table 2. While each

of the seeds is characterized by its essential oil com-

position, similarities in flavor are ascribed to the

presence of identical chief compounds. For example,

anethole is the chief component of anise seed and

fennel, and these two spices are similar in flavor.

0012The volatile essential oils are extracted from the

seeds by steam distillation. Using stainless-steel

equipment, steam passes through the ground seeds

and carries with it the volatiles. Extraction time

varies, depending on the plant, from 6 to 12 h. After

cooling, the condensate consists of a mixture of water

and oil. The oil fraction is separated by gravity,

filtered and dried. Oxidation of the unsaturated

compounds (terpenes and sesquiterpenes) is avoided.

Terpeneless and sesquinterpeneless extracts with

improved storage stability are also produced.

0013Oleoresins are concentrated, viscous, resinous ex-

tracts of the flavor ingredients, obtained by extracting

the volatile oils with organic solvents such as hexane

and ethylene dichloride, using three to four volumes

tbl0001 Table 1 Proximate composition of umbelliferous seeds (per 100 g edible portion)

Nutrient Anise Caraway Celery Coriander Cumin Dill Fennel

Water (g) 9.5 9.9 6.0 8.8 8.1 7.7 8.8

Protein (g) 17.6 19.8 18.1 12.4 17.8 16.0 15.8

Fat (g) 15.9 14.6 25.3 17.8 22.3 14.5 14.9

Total carbohydrate (g) 50.0 49.9 41.3 55.0 44.2 55.2 52.3

Ash (g) 7.0 5.9 9.3 6.0 7.6 6.6 8.2

Fiber (g) 14.6 12.6 11.8 29.1 10.5 21.1 15.7

Calcium (mg) 646 689 1767 709 931 1516 1196

Iron (mg) 37 16 45 16 66 16 19

Magnesium (mg) 170 258 440 330 366 256 385

Phosphorus (mg) 440 568 547 409 499 277 487

Potassium (mg) 1441 1351 1400 1267 1788 1186 1694

Sodium (mg) 16 17 160 35 168 20 88

Zinc (mg) 5 6 7 5 5 5 4

Data compiled from USDA (1977) Composition of Foods, USDA Agriculture Handbook 8–2. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, and other

sources.

HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae 3091

of the solvent to one volume of the seeds. Steps in the

process include grinding, extraction, and distillation.

The solvent percolates down through the ground

spice, carrying with it the volatile essential oils, the

nonvolatile fatty oil (fixed oil), pigments, and resins.

The major fatty acids in the fixed oil are oleic, lino-

leic, petroselinic (cis-6-octadecenoic), and palmitic,

and their concentration depends on the seed. Heat

and vacuum are used to remove the solvent.

0014 Encapsulated oils are available, in addition to

spice extracts and oleoresins. These consist of spray-

dried emulsions of essential oils with a food-grade,

modified, or soluble gum, which forms a protective

capsule, preventing evaporation and oxidation. The

dry product is the size of fine salt and is water-soluble.

It contains about 20% essential oil or oleoresin and

has applications in dry mixes such as dehydrated

soups and sauces. The oils are released upon dissol-

ution of the capsule.

0015 Discussion of specific umbelliferous seeds follows.

It covers historic background, habitat and cultiva-

tion, plant description, seed composition, and uses

in foods and medicine.

Anise Seed (

Pimpinella anisum

L.)

0016 Background Anise seed is reported to have been

found in Egypt as early as 1500 bc. It was once

considered an aphrodisiac and a cure for stomach

disorders and shortness of breath. It was first used

to flavor foods by the Romans in the Middle Ages.

The name Pimpinella derives from dipinella, or twice-

pinnate, referring to the shape of the leaves.

0017 Habitat and cultivation Anise is native to Egypt,

Greece, and Asia Minor; from there it spread in the

Middle Ages to warm parts of Europe, and from there

to India, South America, China, and the USA. Flowers

appear after 3 months, and green fruit a month later.

Yields of about 500–700 kg of seed per hectare are

obtained.

0018 Description The plant is an annual, about 50 cm

high, with a branching stem, feathery leaves,

yellow-white flower clusters, and green fruit (Figure

1). Harvested when the seeds mature, the plants are

dried and the seeds are threshed and dried. The anise

seed is ovoid in shape, 5 mm long, gray-brown, sweet,

spicy, and aromatic.

0019Composition Upon distillation, anise seed yields

1.5–3.5% essential oil, approximately 90% of

which is anethole, with the characteristic anise odor.

It crystallizes on cooling to 15–20



C. The crystalliza-

tion temperature, which increases with anethole con-

tent, is used to evaluate the oil quality. The remaining

fig0001Figure 1 (see color plate 85) Herbs of the Umbelliferae: ani-

se.Reproduced from Herbs/Herbs of the Umbelliferae, Encyclo -

paedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R,

Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

tbl0002 Table 2 Chief flavor components of umbelliferous seeds

Seed Oil content (%) Chief oil, percentage of total Other components

Anise 2–3 Anethole, 80–90 Pinene, limonene, methyl chavicol, anisaldehyde, aniseketone

Caraway 3–6

D-carvone, 50–65 D-limonene

Celery 1.5–2.5

D-limonene, 60 Selinene, sedanolide, sedanonic anhydride

Coriander 0.1–0.5

D-linalool, 45–70 1,4-p-menthadien-7-al

Cumin 2–3 Cuminaldehyde, 35–50 Pinene, p-cymene, a-terpinene, cuminyl alcohol

Dill 2.6–3.7 Carvone, 43–63

D-limonene, carvacol, eugenol

Fennel 2–4 Anethole, 50–60 Fenchone, phellandrene, pinene, methyl chavicol, anisaldehyde, anisic acid

Data compiled from Lewis YS (1984) Spices and Herbs for the Food Industry, Orpington: Food Trade Press, and other sources.

3092 HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae

portion consists of 2% methyl chavicol and terpenes

such as limonene, pinene, and others. In commercial

use, 2.5 kg of the essential oil is equivalent to 100 kg

of freshly ground anise seed in seasoning mixes.

0020 Uses Anise seed is used for flavoring baked goods

such as biscuits, cakes, sweet rolls and bread, soups,

beverages and confectionery (e.g., licorice), and in

preparation of cordials and liqueurs. Several Mediter-

ranean alcoholic drinks are flavored with anise,

which dominates them. Pastis in France (e.g., Pernod,

Ricard, Berger) and anisette contain anise, as does

ouza in Greece and arrak in the eastern Mediterra-

nean countries. Meat products, especially Italian

style, are flavored with anise seed, as are Indian

foods, particularly vegetables and fish dishes from

Bengal. The slightly roasted seed is commonly

chewed after meals to sweeten the breath.

0021 Medicinal activity The anise seed has aromatic, car-

minative, and stimulant properties. It is used in cough

medicine, as a palliative, to relieve flatulence and

colic, and in medicine designed to increase lactation.

The oil is considered a good antiseptic.

Caraway (

Carum carvi

L.)

0022 Background The word ‘caraway’ refers to its origin

in the province Caria in Asia Minor. In ancient times,

caraway seeds were used to mask the breath and to

relieve stomach problems. Bread containing caraway

seeds was eaten in ancient Rome.

0023 Habitat and cultivation Caraway is indigenous to

Europe, India, North Africa, and other countries. It

is cultivated primarily in The Netherlands as well as

in Morocco, Germany, Finland, Russia, Norway,

Canada, and the USA. Fruit appear within 2 months

after the flowers. The seed yield in The Netherlands is

about 2200 kg ha

1

0024 Description The plant is a biennial that grows to a

height of 45–100 cm, bearing umbels of white

flowers, which are followed by fruit. The plants are

harvested when the fruit are still green. The fruit are

allowed to ripen, then dried and threshed. The seeds,

6 mm long, are dark brown, slightly curved, ridged,

and translucent. The aromatic odor evolves when the

fruit is bruised, and the taste is pleasant. The wild

seed is smaller than the cultivated one and has a

stronger flavor.

0025 Composition The seeds contain 3–6% volatile oil.

Distilled oil is prepared from the Dutch, Norwegian,

and Russian seeds. Carvone is the chief constituent,

comprising 50–65% of the total volatile oil, which

also contains the oxygenated oil, carvol. The spent

seed after distillation contains protein and fat and is

used for feed.

0026Uses The seeds are used in breads, rolls, and cakes,

confections, cheese and soups, and to flavor cabbage,

meat dishes, fish, salads, vegetables, and apples. The

oil is used in alcoholic liqueurs, particularly in the

German cordial kummel. It is also used in nonalco-

holic beverages. In addition to the seeds, the tender

leaves are used in soups, and the young roots, similar

to parsnips, are eaten cooked.

0027Medicinal activity In the past, caraway was used as

a carminative and for relief of indigestion.

Celery Seed (

Apium graveolens

L.)

0028Background The medicinal properties of celery seed

are mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey (eighth century

bc). Its use to flavor foods is first recorded in France

at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

0029Habitat and cultivation Celery is a biennial native

to the Near East, southern Europe, and North Africa.

It is cultivated for its seeds in India, France, the UK,

The Netherlands, the USA, and other countries. Seed

yields of around 620 kg ha

1

are considered good.

World production is about 6000 t, half of which is

produced in India.

0030Description The plant grows to a height of 50–

100 cm, with coarsely toothed and segmented leaves

and umbels of white flowers. The ovoid seeds are

about 1–3 mm in length, brown and ridged. They

are crushed and steam-distilled. The root, celeriac,

has a pleasant, mild celery flavor and is popular as a

vegetable in Europe.

0031Composition Celery seeds contain 2.5–3.0% vola-

tile oil. Sedanolide (lactone of sedanolic acid) and

sedanonic anhydride (1.3%) are responsible for the

characteristic odor of the oil, which also contains

d-limonene (60%) and selinene (10–20%).

0032Uses The herb seeds, volatile oil, and oleoresins are

widely used in soups, sauces, pickles, eggs, salads,

tomato products, and meats. Celery salt is a mixture

of ground celery seed and sodium chloride, used as a

seasoning in salads, fish and meat dishes, and other

foods.

0033Medicinal activity Celery seeds are said to be

carminative, stimulant, diuretic, tonic, and inducers

of sleep.

HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae 3093

Coriander (

Coriandrum sativum

L.)

0034 Background Coriander was known as far back as

5000 bc and is mentioned in the Bible in Exodus

16:31. The use of the seeds at burials was recorded

in 1550 bc. Its use by the Romans and by Hippocrates

and other Greek physicians is documented. The

Chinese have cultivated coriander since the fourth

century, and its use in India and Europe dates back

to early times. The name ‘coriandrum’ is derived from

koros, a bug, referring to the disagreeable fetid smell

of the leaves.

0035 Habitat and cultivation Now indigenous to south-

ern Europe, the plant was brought by the Romans

from the east (Egypt). It is also cultivated in North

Africa, Malta, India, Central America, Russia, and

the USA. The yield of dry seed is 1200–2400 kg

1

. World production is estimated at 300 000 t

annually, of which India produces more than 25%.

At least a third of the crop is distilled for the oil. The

deodorized fat (about 20% of the seed) is used as

lubricant or for soap making. In India the seeds are

subjected to mild toasting before use, to improve the

flavor.

0036 Description The plant is an annual, 30–100 cm

high, branched, bright-green, with erect stems. The

flowers are short-stalked umbels, 5–10 rays, pale

mauve or white. The seeds are globular, beaked,

finely ribbed, yellow-brown, 5 mm in diameter, with

five longitudinal ridges. They mature 3 months after

planting. The harvested plants initially have a dis-

agreeable scent, which is lost after drying, and then

become fragrant. There are two types of coriander,

distinguished by the fruit diameter: 3–5mm (Corian-

drum sativum L. var. vulgare) and 1.5–3mm(C. vul-

gare L. var. microcarpum).

0037 Composition The seeds contain about 1% volatile

oil. The alcohol d-linalool is responsible for the

aroma of coriander, and a content of 60% or more

is desirable. d-a-pinene, b-pinene, and a-terpinene,

geraniol, borneol, decylaldehyde, and acetic acid are

other constituents of the oil. The essential oil from the

smaller fruits is superior in flavor and yield. Overall,

coriander oil is more stable than other oils in the

group.

0038 Uses In the northern countries of Europe, coriander

is added to bread, pastries, cheese, soups, vegetables,

and stews. It is further used to flavor processed meat

products such as liver sausage and bologna. In Peru,

the spice is common in almost all dishes. It is fre-

quently used in soups in Peru and Egypt, and it is an

ingredient of curry powder.

0039Medicinal activity Coriander seeds are primarily

used to disguise unpleasant-tasting medicine because

of their aromatic taste and characteristic odor. The

seed is a stimulant and carminative, and in the past

it was considered an aphrodisiac. Extracts from

coriander have been reported to improve glucose

utilization, as shown by glucose tolerance tests.

Cumin (

Cuminum cyminum

L.)

0040Background Cumin is mentioned in the Bible in the

books of Isaiah and Matthew, and in works of

Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was highly regarded

as a condiment by the ancients, and is still used in

medicine in India.

0041Habitat and cultivation Cumin is indigenous to

Egypt, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean, India,

China, Morocco, southern Russia, and other coun-

tries. It grows well on fertile, sandy loam soil free of

weeds.

0042Description The cumin stem is slender and

branched, 30–60 cm high. The deep-green leaves are

divided into long narrow segments. The flowers are

small, rose or white, in stalked umbels with only four

to six rays, each about 8 mm long. The seeds are

oblong, about 5 mm long, resembling caraway

seeds, but lighter in color, bristly rather than smooth,

and almost straight, with nine ridges overlapping as

many oil channels (vittae). Odor and taste are similar

to caraway but stronger, spicy, and curry-like.

0043Composition Cumin seeds contain 2–4% essential

oil, consisting of 40–65% cuminaldehyde, and cymol

or cymene and cyminol.

0044Uses Cumin is an ingredient of curry powder, and

is essential in most Indian, Egyptian, and Turkish

curries. It is also used in Mexican foods, in meat,

poultry, and vegetables. In European countries such

as Switzerland and The Netherlands, cumin is used

to flavor cheese, while the Germans use it to flavor

sauerkraut, bread and other baked products, and

kummel liqueur.

0045Medicinal activity Cumin is considered a stimulant,

antispasmodic, carminative, and a remedy for colic,

but is not used because of the disagreeable flavor.

Dill (

Anethum graveolens

L.)

0046Background Dill is referred to in the Bible in

Matthew by its original Greek name Anethum, and

was used in the Middle Ages by magicians against

witchcraft. The name is derived from the old Norse

3094 HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae

word dilla, meaning to lull or soothe, referring to the

carminative properties.

0047 Habitat and cultivation Dill is a native of the Medi-

terranean and Russia. It is cultivated in many Euro-

pean countries, the USA and Canada, India, Pakistan,

and Japan, and grows wild in Spain, Portugal, and

Italy.

0048 Description The plant, called dill weed, is 60–75 cm

high, similar to but smaller than fennel, with feathery

leaves on sheathing foot-stalks. The plant has gener-

ally one stalk, finely divided leaves, and flat umbels

with yellow flowers and small, rolled-inward petals.

The numerous flat seeds are approximately 5 mm

in length, pungent and bitter. The whole plant is

aromatic.

0049 Composition The seeds contain 2.6–4% volatile oil,

40–60% of which is carvone. Additional constituents

are dihydrocarvone, d-limonene, a-phellandrene,

a-pinene, and dipentene.

0050 Use Dill seed is used in pickles, pickled vegetables,

sour cream- or mayonnaise-based sauces, cheese

spreads, salad dressings and salads, a variety of vege-

tables, soups and fish sauces. Its use in seafood is

popular in the Scandinavian countries. Some pro-

cessed meat products, confections, and beverages

are also seasoned with dill.

0051 Medicinal activity In addition to the magical

powers attributed to dill in ancient times, it was

considered a palliative of stomach pains.

Fennel (

Foeniculum vulgare

)

0052 Background The name ‘foeniculum,’ used by the

Romans, is derived from the Latin word foenum for

hay. This name led to another – fanculum – during the

Middle Ages, and later to the popular name fenkel.

The plant was assigned by Linnaeus to the genus

Anethum, but was later placed by De Candolle in a

new genus, Foeniculum. Foeniculum vulgare is the

common or wild variety, F. dulce is the sweet (French)

fennel, and F. capillaceum is the garden variety.

Fennel was cultivated by the ancient Romans for its

aromatic seeds, used as a vegetable and against witch-

craft. It is mentioned in Spanish agriculture records

dated 961 ad. Today, all parts of the fennel plant are

edible – the seeds, leaves, stalks, and bulb.

0053 Habitat and cultivation Fennel is indigenous to the

Mediterranean and grows wild in most parts of tem-

perate Europe, Egypt, India, Japan, China, the USA,

and Argentina. It is a hardy perennial that grows

particularly well on limestone soil. The yield of

seeds is about 1200 kg ha

1

0054Description The plant grows to 1.2–1.5 m in height,

with finely divided bright-green leaves and umbels of

yellow flowers. The cultivated fennel (F. capillaceum

or F. officinale) is taller than the wild variety, with

larger stems, bearing fruit 6–12 mm long, double the

size of the wild fennel. Several varieties of fennel seed

are known, varying in size, volatile oil content, and

taste. The most valued seed is elliptical, slightly

curved, and pale gray-green in color, with a sweet,

fragrant aroma similar to that of anise or licorice. In

addition to the perennial varieties, F. dulce is an

annual, native of Italy, about 30 cm high, with large,

finely cut leaves and pale green-white stalks.

0055Composition Good varieties of fennel contain 4–

6% volatile oil, of which the principal constituents

are anethole (50–60%) and fenchone (19–22%).

Fenchone is colorless, with a pungent camphoraceous

odor and bitter taste. Small amounts of a-pinene,

phellandrine, camphene, dipentene, methyl chavi-

cole-hydroxyphenylacetone, and limonene are also

present in the oil. While fennel grown in eastern

European countries and Russia contains 4–5% vola-

tile oil, French fennel yields only 2.1% oil, with lower

levels of anethole and a sweet taste owing to

absence of fenchone. Indian fennel contains only

0.72% volatile oil.

0056Uses Fennel seeds, as well as the leaves, are used

with fish and seafood dishes. The seeds are used in

soups, German and Italian breads, Polish bortsch,

Italian sausage such as hot and sweet pepperoni,

pickles, salads, poultry and meat dishes, and fruit

pie fillings. The Spanish use the seed frequently in

cooking and baking, and it is employed in flavoring

cordials and liqueurs. Commercially, fennel seed or

the extract is used to flavor medicine, soaps, and

perfumes.

0057Medicinal activity Fennel oil has carminative prop-

erties, similar to those of dill and anise oil, and is

considered beneficial in treating chest, spleen, and

kidney diseases. The crushed seeds steeped in boiling

water yield fennel water, which is helpful against

flatulence. In India, toasted fennel seeds are chewed

after meals.

Umbelliferae Leaf Types

0058Parsley is the most popular leaf-type herb of the

Umbelliferae family. Similar, but less recognized

HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae 3095

outside France, is chervil. The fresh leaves of parsley

and chervil are most frequently used finely chopped

on meat, fish, soups, and salads. Leaves of three of the

herbs discussed in the first half of this article, namely

coriander, dill, and fennel, also find many uses in

the food industry and home food preparation. The

composition of the fresh leaves is similar; they contain

approximately 85% water, 3% protein, 1% fat, 10%

carbohydrates, and 2% ash. The flavor substances in

fresh leaves are generally present at lower concentra-

tions than those found in seeds of the Umbelliferae

plants. For example, dry dill seeds contain 2.6–4%

volatile oil, whereas dill leaves or weed contain only

0.3–0.6% volatile oil. The composition of the oil

differs as well.

0059 Herb leaves are at their best when used fresh, and

ideally should be used as soon as possible after picking.

Their limited shelf-life can be extended by appropriate

packaging and cold storage in the dark, since the or-

ganoleptic properties deteriorate when exposed to air

and light. The leaves are preserved by drying to 5%

moisture content or less. The composition of dehy-

drated chervil, coriander, dill, and parsley leaves is

presented in Table 3. Drying conditions influence the

flavor quality, and improved products are obtained by

freeze-drying or lyophilization, as opposed to the con-

ventional drying procedures, since exposure to heat

impairs the flavor characteristics. In freeze-drying,

the leaves are first frozen and placed in a vacuum,

and the ice is sublimated. The freeze-dried leaves con-

tain 1–3% moisture and have a fresh-weight replace-

ment of 1:9. They are spongy and similar in volume

and shape to the original material. The bulk density is

about 0.3 g cm

3

. Stored at a cool temperature in

airtight containers, the leaves are easily reconstituted

when placed in cold water. Flavor and texture are

excellent since maximum temperatures during final

dehydration are less than 50



C. Microwave freeze-

drying of spice leaves has also been studied.

0060Properties of the leaves of chervil, coriander, dill,

fennel, and parsley are discussed below.

Chervil (

Anthriscus cerefolium

L.)

0061Background The Greeks and Romans cultivated the

plant during the Middle Ages. It was called myrrhis

because of the similarity of the aroma to that of

myrrh, a biblical spice. Used often in fried cooking,

it is considered the gourmet’s parsley.

0062Habitat and cultivation Chervil is an annual or bi-

ennial herb, native of western Asia and south-western

parts of Russia, from which it reached the Mediterra-

nean about 300 bc. It is cultivated in Europe, France,

Italy, Spain, the UK, Russia, and the USA.

0063Description The plant grows to a height of 30–

60 cm and has small, fine leaves and small white

flowers (Figure 2). The flavor is similar to that of

parsley with a hint of anise.

tbl0003 Table 3 Proximate composition of selected umbelliferous dried

leaves (per 100 g edible portion)

Nutrient Chervil Coriander Dill Parsley

Water (g) 7.2 7.3 7.3 9.0

Protein (g) 23.2 21.8 20.0 22.4

Fat (g) 3.9 4.7 4.4 4.4

Carbohydrate (g) 49.1 52.0 55.8 51.7

Fiber (g) 11.3 10.4 11.9 10.3

Ash (g) 16.6 14.0 12.5 12.5

Calcium (mg) 1346 1246 1784 1468

Iron (mg) 32 43 49 98

Magnesium (mg) 130 694 451 249

Phosphorus (mg) 450 481 543 351

Potassium (mg) 4740 4466 3308 3805

Sodium (mg) 83 211 208 452

Zinc (mg) 9 3 5

Data compiled from USDA (1977) Composition of Foods, USDA Agriculture

Handbook 8–2. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, and other

sources.

fig0002Figure 2 (see color plate 86) Herbs of the Umbelliferae: chervil.

Reproduced from Herbs/Herbs of the Umbelliferae, Encyclopae-

dia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R,

Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

3096 HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae

0064 Uses Chervil is used frequently in French cooking

in combination with parsley, tarragon, and chives,

which make up the fines herbes. Alone, it is used

like parsley, chopped fine and sprinkled on meat,

fish, and soups, in salads and as a garnish. It is also

used in baked products.

Coriander (

Coriandrum sativum

L.)

0065 For background, habitat, and cultivation, see the

section on coriander seeds, above.

0066 Description Also called Chinese parsley or cilantro

in Spanish, the plant leaves are quite similar in shape

to the leaves of parsley but more jagged (Figure 3).

The aroma is fetid. In contrast to the seeds, the leaves

contain only about 0.1% volatile oil, in which ali-

phatic aldehydes such as decylaldehyde are present.

These compounds give the leaves their disagreeable

odor, which is so different from that of the seeds.

0067 Uses The fresh young leaves are used like parsley to

flavor salads and soups in the Middle East, India,

China, Japan, Mexico, and South America. They are

also used in chutney.

Dill (

Anethum graveolens

L.)

0068For background, habitat and cultivation, and descrip-

tion, see the section on dill seed, above.

0069Composition Distillation of oil from the plant yields

about 0.3–0.6% of volatile oil. The carvone content is

less than 20%, and the oil contains a high proportion

of hydrocarbons. Phellandrene is responsible for the

characteristic flavor.

0070Use The most important use of dill weed is in pick-

ling cucumbers (dill pickles). The fresh leaves are used

for flavoring salads, soups, sauces, and fish dishes,

and in pastries. Dill butter is prepared by creaming

butter with minced fresh or dried dill.

Fennel (

Foeniculum vulgare

)

0071For background, habitat and cultivation, and descrip-

tion, see the section on fennel seeds, above.

0072Uses The tender leaves are used for garnishes and

to flavor salads, salad dressings, soups, and sauces.

Stems of the cultivated fennel are also eaten in salads

(Figure 4). The Italian fennel (F. dulce) is a popular

vegetable in Italy. Cooked and served in cream sauce,

it is reminiscent of celery in taste, although sweeter.

0073Medicinal activity The leaves of fennel were con-

sidered in ancient times to be aphrodisiac, to improve

eyesight, stop hiccups, assist in losing weight, relieve

stomach pains, and cure wheezing. Syrup prepared

from fennel juice was given for chronic coughs. Boiled

in water, the liquid is used to increase lactation.

Parsley (

Carum petroselinum, Apium petroselinum

L., Petroselinum hortense (crispum)

)

0074Background The name ‘petroselinum,’ from which

the name parsley is derived, is said to have been

assigned by Dioscorides. Although Linnaeus assigned

it in 1764 to the genus Apium, it is assigned today to

the genus Carum. The herb was used in funeral rites

by the Greeks, who held it sacred.

0075Habitat and cultivation Parsley is indigenous to the

Mediterranean regions. It is cultivated in the Mediter-

ranean countries, Europe, the USA, and Japan. The

Germination period is 10–21 days and maturation

occurs in 70 days.

0076Description Parsley is biennial or perennial, with

dark-green stems growing to a height of about

60 cm. The plain-leaf parsley is by far the hardier,

able to survive a severe winter. Several cultivated

varieties exist, characterized by the plain leaf, the

fig0003 Figure 3 (see color plate 87) Herbs of the Umbelliferae: cori-

ander. Reproduced from Herbs/Herbs of the Umbelliferae, En-

cyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition,

Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic

Press.

HERBS/Herbs of the Umbelliferae 3097

broad leaf (Hamburg), and the curled leaf (crispum).

Of the latter, the ones with compact leaves are most

valuable. The Hamburg variety is grown primarily

for its enlarged root. The aroma of the leaves is

slightly fragrant, and the taste is tangy and pleasant.

0077 Composition The plant yields no more than 0.06%

volatile oil, while the seed contains 3.5%. The main

constituent of the volatile oil is apiole, and myristicin,

d-pinene, and other aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols

are also present. Total solids are 11–12%, of which

sucrose is 0.2% and glucose is 0.1%.

0078 Uses The most common uses of parsley are as

flavoring to sauces, soups, omelets, stuffings, meat,

and other dishes, or sprinkled finely chopped over

salads and vegetables and in the preparation of pars-

ley butter. Parsley, in combination with other herbs, is

a component of the bouquet garni in French cooking.

Dried leaves are also used for these purposes. The

leaves are frequently used as garnish. The broad-leaf

variety (Hamburg) is used for flavoring soups and

stews, and the roots are also cooked and eaten like

parsnips. Commercially, parsley is used in soup bases,

seasoning mixes, salad dressings, and similar foods.

Dehydrated parsley is available as flakes, as powder

and minced.

0079Medicinal activity In the past, parsley was con-

sidered a remedy for a large number of disorders,

including the ability to counteract poisons and for

treatment of coronary conditions. Parsley, fresh and

dehydrated, has carminative and diuretic properties.

Parsley tea is prepared by steeping the dried leaves.

The chopped leaves have been used externally as a

remedy for bites and stings and as a treatment of

cancerous tumors.

See also: Essential Oils: Properties and Uses; Isolation

and Production; Herbs: Herbs and Their Uses; Herbs of

the Compositae; Herbs of the Labiatae; Herbs Used in

Alcoholic Drinks