Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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The herbs impart to an alcoholic beverage the char-

acteristic recognized flavor (taste and aroma) and

bouquet. These flavoring attributes have traditionally

been one of the most significant qualitative factors in

the use of alcoholic drinks. In addition, the essential

oils from many aromatic herbs, so-called medicinal

herbs, have many beneficial effects on metabolism,

which are experienced after the controlled use of

alcoholic drinks based on such herbs; for example,

medicinal wines (vina medicata) have been used for a

long time.

0002 The commercially important alcoholic drinks

based on herbs are as follows: beers, aromatized

wines (vermouths and medicinal wines), liqueurs

(bitter, fruit), and hard liquors (bitters, brandies,

flavored distilled spirits, etc.).

Use of Herbs in the Alcoholic Drink

Industry

0003 In the alcoholic drink industry, both wild and culti-

vated herbs are used; a summary of the herbs used for

this purpose, and known all over the world to a

greater or lesser degree is presented in Table 1. Be-

cause of the need for larger quantities, the cultivation

of some herbs is of great importance. Herbs are most

often used dried or processed, and rarely fresh. Dif-

ferent parts of the herb are used: aerial parts, flowers,

leaves, berries, roots, and seeds. The soluble essences

(essential oils and extracts), obtained by processing

either fresh or dried herbs or their parts, are also used

in the flavoring of alcoholic drinks.

0004 Herbs are used in alcoholic drink production either

as flavorings, or as both fermentation substrate and

flavoring agent. The flavor of a herb is dependent on

its volatile and nonvolatile constituents; the former

gives to the herb its distinctive odor, and the latter can

affect some gustatory reaction sometimes coupled

with a physiological effect.

0005 Most herbs are used only for flavoring purposes.

A base alcohol (beer, spirit, and wine) is combined

with one or more herbs, known as the herbal formula,

to obtain a special flavor. Herbal formulae usually

contain more than one herb. One herb may be a

major definitive constituent, while the others are

added to develop the overall flavor of an alcoholic

drink. For example, juniper berries are always

used in gin production, but others, such as coriander

seed, angelica root, or caraway seed, play a very

important role, also as flavour ingredients, in some

gin formulae. In a herbal formula, the selection

of ingredients with respect to the major constituent

is generally limited, and the proportions of con-

stituents are normally constant and commonly not

disclosed by manufacturers. The ‘right’ proportions

are achieved through experimentation.

0006The herbs of appropriate quality are used for alco-

holic drink production. The selection is largely based

on organoleptic assessment. Color, overall appear-

ance, odor, moisture content, quality, and content of

essential oil or other specific characteristics are

assessed for the purpose of selection and approval of

quality of herbs or their parts. Although the specific

flavor profile is within acceptable limits, quantitative

variations in the flavor characteristics are often ob-

served among different batches of the same herb ma-

terial or even between different parts of the herb.

Because of these variations, the herb material should

contain the useful part of the herb, with a minimum

content of the other parts of that or other herbs, and

be of natural odor, color, and proper overall appear-

ance, without any trace of decay or spoilage. The

distinctive odor of the herb should be typical and

‘clean,’ with no trace of mustiness. The acceptable

moisture content is usually in the range of 10–20%,

mostly 12–14% on a dry-weight basis; it should not

be too high, in order to reduce the risk of burning

during storage, but too low a moisture content means

that the herb material is old. The composition, color,

and odor of the essential oil are important factors for

the quality of an alcoholic drink, while its content is

important for the economic production of the drink.

0007For the flavoring of alcoholic drinks, herbs are

commonly used in the following basic ways:

0008By maceration of the herb materials in a base

alcohol (spirit, wine, etc.).

0009By codistillation of the herb materials or their

essential oils with a suitable high-quality spirit

(usually grain or other neutral spirit).

0010By mixing the essences of the herb materials with a

spirit or wine.

Details of these processes differ among the various

manufacturers, who usually do not disclose them.

The maceration process is applied in the production

of fruit brandies with aromatic herbs (usually with

medicinal properties), bitters made with bittering

herbs, and aromatized wines. Herbs rich in essential

oils are macerated with a spirit containing 70%

ethanol by volume, while the herbs rich in tannins

are treated with a 50% spirit. The herb material is

immersed in the chosen alcoholic base in a tank for a

certain period of time and occasionally agitated. The

liquid is drawn off, and the exhausted herb material is

pressed to recover the residual liquid. The codistilla-

tion process is used in the production of hard liquors,

such as gin. The herbs are placed in a still and covered

with the base spirit of approved quality and alcoholic

strength. The materials are charged loosely or held in

HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks 3099

tbl0001 Table 1 Herbs used in alcoholic drinks

Common name Scientific name Parts and essences

used

Description of the part used and the

content of essential oil

Use in alcoholic drink

Angelica Archangelica

offcinalis

Root, essential oil,

macerate

Fleshy tap root, 12–25 cm long; odor sweet

and musk-like upon storing; taste sweet,

becoming slightly bitter and astringent;

oil < 1%

Brandies, gins,

flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Anise Pimpinella anisum Seeds, essential oil,

macerate

Root

Gray-green to brown seeds, ovate,

laterally compressed, pubescent,

3–5 mm long, 2–3 mm wide; odor

anethole-like; taste sweet and

aromatic; oil 1.5–4%

Brandies, flavored

spirits, liqueurs,

medicinal wines,

vermouths

Arnica Arnica montana Root, macerate,

percolate

Brown, hard, flexible, knotty root, 3–5 mm

thick and 9 cm long; odor faint, aromatic;

taste bitter and acrid; oil 0.1%

Bitters, flavored

spirits, liqueurs

Balm Melissa officinalis Leaves Green, rough cordate, serrated; odor of

lemon; taste bitter; oil 0.1–0.3%

Liqueurs, flavored

spirits, medicinal

wines

Basil Ocimum basilicum Aerial parts Low, sweet-scented bush; green, slightly

toothed leaves; pink or white flowers;

odor strong, pungent, sweet; taste

peppery; oil 0.4–1.0%

Flavored spirits

Blessed

thistle

Cnicus benedictus Aerial parts Medium height; dark green, deeply lobed,

prickly; large, solitary, yellow heads of

flowers; odor faint; taste bitter

Liqueurs, vermouths

Buffalo

grass

Hie« rochloe odorata Aerial parts Low, creeping range grass Vodka

Burdock Arctium lappa Root Fleshy, beet-like roots, up to 50 cm long,

with brown cork; taste slightly bitter

Vermouths

Calamus Acorus calamus Root, essential oil,

macerate, percolate

Brownish root, spongy texture, 12–25 mm

thick, sometimes longer than 1 m; odor

slightly sweet and aromatic; taste warm,

pungent, rather bitter; oil 1.5–3.5%

Brandies (bitter),

flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Caraway Carum carvi Seeds, essential oil,

macerate

Dark brown seeds with yellow ridges,

crescent-shaped, 4–7 mm long, up to

1 mm broad; odor agreeable; taste

pleasant, spicy, but sharp; oil 3–7%

Brandies, gins,

flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines

Cardamom Eletaria

cardamomum

Seeds, essential oil Pale to dark red-brown seeds,

sickle-shaped, three-to four-sided,

3–5 mm long, 3 mm broad, hard; odor

agreeable; taste strong, spicy, and

aromatic; oil 5–9%

Brandies, flavored

spirits, liqueurs,

medicinal wines

Carnation Dianthus

caryophyllus

Flowers, essential oil,

macerate

Deep pink, single or double flowers; odor

clove-like; taste spicy

Brandy (bitter),

flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Celery Apium

graveolens

Seeds, essential oil Dark brown seeds, roundish-ovoid

cremocarp; about 1–1.5 mm long, 1.5 mm

wide, 0.5 mm thick; odor characteristic;

taste strong and somewhat sharp;

oil 2.5–3%

Liqueurs

Clammy sage Salvia sclarea Flowers, leaves,

essential oil

Pale blue or lilac; large flowers;

grayish-green, oblong, leaves; odour

balsamic; taste aromatic and bitter;

oil < 2%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Common

marigold

Calendula

officinalis

Flowers Light yellow to orange; odor slight and

aromatic; taste salty and slightly bitter;

oil in trace

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Coriander Coriandrum

sativum

Seeds, essential oil,

macerate

Tawny or reddish seeds, small, rounded

(2–4 mm), ridged; odor mellow spicy;

taste sweetly aromatic; oil 0.4–1.5%

Brandies, gin,

flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Dandelion Ta r a x a c um

officinale

Flowers

Roots

Bright golden-yellow, tiny florets

Cylindrical, tapering, 10–30 cm long,

1–2 cm wide; odor slight; taste

somewhat bitter

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Continued

3100 HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks

Common name Scientific name Parts and essences

used

Description of the part used and the

content of essential oil

Use in alcoholic drink

Dill Anethum

graveolens

Seeds Pale brown, oval, 3–5 mm long; odor and

taste aromatic, pleasant and

characteristic; oil < 4%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Elecampane Inula helenium Root, macerate,

percolate

Grayish brown, fleshy root, 6 cm thick,

up to 50 cm long; odor aromatic,

pleasant; taste slightly bitter and

pungent

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

European

centaury

Erythraea

centaurium

Flowering aerial parts Stems, branched above, 20–30 cm in

length; green-brown, oblong or elliptic

leaves; rose pink, salver-shaped; odor

distinct; taste bitter

Bitters, vermouths

Everlasting Helichrysum

arenarium

Flowers Yellow, rarely orange, grape-like: odor

faint, aromatic; taste bitter

Liqueurs

Fennel (wild) Foeniculum

vulgare

Seeds, essential oil,

macerate

Green to yellow-brown, oblong

cremocarps; odor anethole-like; taste

sweet; becoming bitter; oil 3.5–6%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Fenugreek Tr i g o n e l a

foenum

Seeds Light to dark yellow-brown, rhomboidal;

2–3 mm thick, 3–6 mm long; odor

specific; taste slightly bitter and

mucilaginous

Vermouths

Galangal Alpinia

officunarum

Root, essential oil,

macerate

Red brown on drying; hard, branching,

nearly cylindrical root; odor pungent

and spicy; taste pungent; oil 0.3–1%

Brandies, liqueurs,

medicinal wines,

vermouths

Garden thyme Thymus vulgaris Leaves, macerate Yellow-green to brown-purple, narrow,

ovate; odor thymol-like; taste strong,

slightly sharp; oil 0.8–2.5%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Gentian Gentiana lutea Root, macerate Nearly cylindrical, hard root, up to about

90 cm long, yellow-brown to brown;

odor characteristic; taste sweet,

becoming bitter

Gentian brandy,

medicinal wines,

vermouths

Germander Te u c rium

chamaedrys

Aerial parts Greenish; ovate, crenate leaves;

pinkish-purple flowers; odor faintly

aromatic; taste bitter and pungent;

oil 0.06%

Liqueurs

German

chamomile

Matricaria

chamomilla

Flowers, essential oil,

macerate

Yellow conical flower heads with white

margins, odor aromatic; taste bitter;

oil 0*5–1*5%

Liqueurs

Ginger Zingiber officinale Root, essential oil,

macerate

Grey, striped; hand-like with irregular

fingers; 8–12 cm long; odor aromatic

and agreeable; taste strongly

pungent; oil 1.5–3.3%

Liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Aerial parts, flowers Bine, dioecious; large, toothed leaves;

small, yellowish green flowers

Vermouths

Hop Humulus lupulus Seeds, flowers From the female plant; yellowish green,

ovoid strobiles; odor aromatic; taste

bitter; oil in seeds, 1–3%

Beers

Horehound Marrubium

vulgare

Aerial parts Greenish; green-brown, crenate leaves;

small, white flowers in dense clusters;

odor faint, pleasant; taste bitter and

pungent

Vermouths

Hyssop Hyssopus

officinalis

Aerial parts,

essential oil

Fragrant, shrubby herb; dark green,

slender leaves; spikes of blue-pink

flowers; odor aromatic; taste bitter,

minty; oil 0.3–1%

Liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Juniper Juniperus

communis

Fruits, essential oil Blue-black, globular (5–8 mm) fruits; odor

terpentine-like; taste aromatic, spicy

and slightly of pine; oil 0.2–2%

Brandies, gin,

geneva, Steinhger,

borovic

ka,

Lavender Lavandula

officinalis

Flowers,

essential oil

Bluish-purple flowers; odor aromatic

pleasant; taste aromatic, bitter;

oil 0.9–3%

Liqueurs

Liquorice Glycyrrhiza

glabra

Root, macerate,

percolate

Grayish brown root, brown on drying;

odor characteristic; taste sweet

Brandies, liqueurs

Table 1 Continued

Continued

HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks 3101

Common name Scientific name Parts and essences

used

Description of the part used and the

content of essential oil

Use in alcoholic drink

Lovage Levisticum

officinale

Aerial parts, flowers,

essential oil

Greenish; dark green-yellow, elliptic

flowers; odor strong, pleasant taste,

slightly spicy

Liqueurs

Lungwort Pulmonaria

officinalis

Aerial parts Greenish; large spotted leaves; clusters of

blue or purple flowers; taste astringent

Vermouths

Marjoram Origanum

vulgare

Aerial parts Greenish; tough, woody stem; gray-green,

ovate, crenate leaves; tiny mauve or

pink flowers grouped in little round

clusters; odor aromatic; taste sweet and

spicy; oil > 0.1%

Vermouths

Motherwort Leonorus

cardiaca

Aerial parts Very hairy, upright; deeply palmately lobed

leaves with serrated margins; taste

bitter

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Orris Iris germanica Root, essential oil,

tincture

Hard root, up to about 10 cm long, 2 cm

thick, pale cream; odor violet-like; taste

somewhat bitter; oil 0.1–0.2%

Brandies, liqueurs,

vermouths

Pansy Viola tricolor Aerial parts, flowers Dark green, spoon-shaped, crenate leaves;

blue flowers with a short spur; odor

slight; taste faintly bitter

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Peppermint Mentha piperita Leaves, essential oil,

macerate

Ovate-lanceolate, acute serrate leaves;

odor strong, distinctive; taste pungent

and cooling; oil 1.5–3.5%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Roman

chamomile

Anthemis nobilis Flowers Yellow and white blossoms; with double,

white florets; odor strong, aromatic;

taste bitter; oil about 1%

Liqueurs, vermouths

Roman

wormwood

Artemisia pontica Aerial parts Greenish; leaves twice- or triple-divided;

yellow flower heads; odor and taste

aromatic; oil about 1%

Liqueurs, vermouths

Rosemary Rosmarinus

officinalis

Leaves, essential oil,

macerate

Leaves like coniferous needles; odor

strong, distinct; taste pungent; oil 1.5–2%

Liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

Saffron Crocus

sativus

Flowers, macerate,

percolate, tincture

Bright orange-red stigmas; odor

penetrating, distinct; taste aromatic,

spicy, pungent; oil about 1%

Brandies, liqueurs,

medicinal wines,

vermouths

Sage Salvia

officinalis

Leaves Grayish-green, oblong, hairy; odor

aromatic; taste warm, pungent, slightly

bitter; oil 0.5–2.5%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines, vermouths

St John’s wort Hyperycum

perforatum

Aerial parts, flowers Pale green leaves with oil glands; bright

yellow flowers; odor distinct; taste

astringent; oil < 0.3%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Savory (summer) Satureja

hortensis

Aerial parts Small, narrow, dark green leaves growing

sparsely; white, tiny flowers; odor

aromatic; taste slightly peppery;

oil 2–3%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Star anis Illicium verum Seeds Shiny, light brown, hard, wrinkled; odor

anise-like; taste spicy, sweet and

pungent; oil 5–8%

Vermouths

Sweet clover Melilotus

officinalis

Aerial parts,

essential oil

Long, stalked leaf divided into three

narrow, ovate, toothed leaflets; small,

yellow flowers; odor sweet, hay-like;

taste aromatic

Liqueurs, vermouths

Sweet marjoram Majorana

hortensis

Aerial parts,

essential oil

Branched; hairy leaves; small whitish or

rose flowers; odor distinct, pleasant;

taste aromatic, bitter; oil vermouths

0.5–1.3%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs,

Tarragon Artemisia

dracunculus

Leaves, macerate,

percolate

Shrubby; dark, smooth, shiny leaves;

odor aromatic; taste sweet and bitter;

oil 0.5–2.8%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, medicinal

wines

Valerian Valeriana

officinalis

Roots, essential oil Dark brown root, 2–4 cm long, 1–2 cm wide;

odor pungent; taste bitter; oil 0.5–2%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Continued

Table 1 Continued

3102 HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks

porous bags in the spirit, or placed in trays above the

free surface of the spirit; the latter two methods have

the advantage that the exhausted herbs can be easily

removed from the still. The third method is commonly

used in production of liqueurs and flavored spirits.

0011 In a few cases, herbs contain not only specific

flavoring compounds, but also a significant content

of fermentable sugars (juniper berries, about 15–

30%; gentian roots, about 25% on a dry-weight

basis) which can be converted by strains of yeast

into ethanol in an alcoholic fermentation process.

For example, juniper berries can be used for flavoring

grain spirits (gin, geneva), fruit spirits (fruit brandies;

klekovac

a, from Yugoslavia), but also in the produc-

tion of special alcoholic drinks which involves the

alcoholic fermentation process, for example, Wachol-

derlu

ter (the base for Steinha

ger), borovic

ka, or brin-

jevac. The special flavor of the alcoholic drinks

obtained in this way is mainly attributable to the

flavoring compounds of the herb. Commonly, the

herb materials are first comminuted and mixed with

water in a specified ratio; sometimes, mineral salts

(ammonium salts, phosphates) are also added. Then a

certain amount of bakery or brewer’s yeast is added.

The fermentation conditions are usually regulated;

in the fermentation of juniper berries, the tempera-

ture is about 25–30



C, and pH is about 4. Owing to

the presence of the aromatic compounds from the

essential oil, which act as yeast inhibitors, fermenta-

tion is slow and can last up to a couple of weeks.

The fermented mash is then distilled to obtain the

alcoholic drink. The essential oil also distils and

separates as a lighter phase. In the case of juniper

berries, it is also possible at first to recover the essen-

tial oil by hydrodistillation, then to remove the

residual plant material by filtration and finally to

use the filtrate as the fermentation medium. By this

procedure, the duration of fermentation process is

significantly reduced (to about 1 day) and the yield

of ethanol is increased.

0012It is clear that not only the herb materials but also

every stage in herb processing and drink preparation

affects, at least to some extent, the overall flavor of

alcoholic drinks. A delicate balance between what is

added and what is lost, transformed, or formed

during herb processing and drink preparation is

established.

Harvesting and Handling of Herbs

Harvesting

0013In order to retain their specific valuable properties,

herbs have to be harvested at the correct time, which

is characteristic for every herb. Table 2 lists the best

moments for harvesting some commercially import-

ant herbs. The method of harvesting depends on the

type and useful part of herb, and can be very primi-

tive, usually by hand, or carried out using special

machines, such as combine harvesters. Aerial parts

are cut at ground level or somewhat above, and leaves

are picked; they are often chopped before drying.

Flower heads are picked out whole. Seed plants,

after cutting, are left for a couple of hours or days in

the field to dry or ripen, and the seeds are then shaken

out or threshed for further drying, winnowing, or

sifting. Roots are pulled out or turned out with a

plough, freed of earth, tops, and rootlets, washed

thoroughly and cut into smaller pieces for further

drying.

Common name Scientific name Parts and essences

used

Description of the part used and the

content of essential oil

Use in alcoholic drink

Wild thyme Thymus

serpyllum

Aerial parts, flowers Low, spreading bush; very small,

short-stalked, lanceolate obovate

oblong leaves; pink-purple flowers;

odor distinct; taste aromatic;

oil < 1%

Flavored spirits,

liqueurs

Woodruff Asperula

odorata

Aerial parts, flowers Low-carpeting plant; slightly shiny

leaves; small, white, star-shaped;

odor cumarin-like

Brandies, vermouths,

vodka

Wormwood Artemisia

absinthium

Aerial parts, macerate,

percolate

Shrubby; silver-gray leaves; pale

greenish-yellow flowers; odor pungent;

taste aromatic, extremely bitter;

oil < 0.9%

Bitters, flavored spirits,

liqueurs, vermouths

Yarrow Achillea

millefolium

Aerial parts, macerate,

percolate

Pinnate, finely divided leaves;

small, white, or pinkish flower heads;

odor fragrant; taste pleasant, bitter;

oil 0.2–1.3%

Brandies, flavored

spirits, liqueurs,

vermouths

The essences given are reported in the literature to be used for the flavoring of alcoholic drinks.

Table 1 Continued

HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks 3103

tbl0002 Table 2 Harvesting and handling of herbs used in the alcoholic drink industry

Herb material Harvesting time Drying Packaging and storage

Angelica root End of autumn In dark, well-aired places, or in

dryers (35–45



Bags or bales; on shelves in dry,

well-aired places

Anise seed August and September when

just beginning to turn brown

In shady or dark, well-aired

places with frequent turning

Paper bags; in dry places

Arnica root In autumn, after the leaves have

died down

In shady or dark, well-aired places Bags or bales; on shelves in dry,

well-aired places

Balm leaves Before flowering, without stems Immediately after harvesting.

In shady, well-aired places, or

in dryers (40



Immediately after drying; hermetic

packing; in dark, cool places

Basil aerial parts During flowering in the early

summer

In shady, well-aired places, or in

dryers (35–45



Paper bags; in dry, air-conditioned

places

Blessed thistle

aerial parts

and sowers

At the beginning of flowering

in mid-August

Immediately after harvesting.

In shady, well-aired places,

or in dryers (40



Paper bags; in dry, air-conditioned

places

Burdock root In autumn, before becoming

stiff

In dryers (35–45



C) Jute or paper bags; only stored for

a few months

Calamus root At the end of summer or

during the autumn

In well-aired places, or in

dryers (40



Bags; in dark, air-conditioned places

Caraway seeds July to August In the field until dry Bags; in air-conditioned places

Cardamom seeds The fruits are picked up

whilst growing

In the sun Bags; in air-conditioned places

Carnation flowers May to August In shady, well-aired places Bags; in air-conditioned places

Celery seeds August, in the early morning Several hours in the field, or in

dryers (35–40



Bags; in dry places

Clammy sage

flowers and

leaves

About 10 days after flowering In shady, well-aired places;

not recommended before

distillation

Paper bags; in dry places

Common marigold

flowers

During flowering, June to

September

In the shade, or in dryers (40–50



with good air circulation

Cartons; in dry places

Coriander seeds August; after cutting, the herbs

are left to complete ripening

In the shade. In dryers (35–45



with good circulation

Jute bags; in dry, dark places

Dandelion flowers

and roots

Immediately after flowering In shady, well-aired places; often

used fresh

Paper bags; when used fresh, the

whole herb is transported

Dandelion roots In autumn In the open for several days, then

in dryers (40–50



Paper bags

Dill seeds When the fruits turn from

green to brown

In the shade, or in dryers (35–45



with good air circulation

In dry, dark places

Elecampane root In autumn In well-aired places, or in dryers

(40



C) with good air circulation

Bags or bales; in dry, well-aired

places

European centaury

aerial parts

During flowering (July–August) In trays or other well-aired places,

or in dryers (40–50



Paper or jute bags; in dry, well-aired

places

Everlasting flowers During flowering

(June–September)

Immediately after harvest in

well-aired places; in dryers

(40



Jute or paper bags; on shelves in dry,

cool and well-aired places

Fennel seeds In summer First in the shade, then in dryers

(40



Well-closed cartons or paper bags

Fenugreek seeds End of summer In well-aired places Well-packed; in dry places

Galangal root In early spring In the sun Paper bags; in dark, cool places

Garden thyme

leaves

During flowering (May–August) In well-aired places, or in dryers

(35



Paper bags; in dry places

Gentian root In autumn In the sun, or in dryers (80



C) Jute or paper bags; in dry, cool places

Germander aerial

parts

April–July In shady, well-aired places, or in

dryers (35–45



Jute or paper bags; in dry, well-aired

and cool places

German

chamomile

flowers

During flowering (April–June) In shady, well-aired places, or in

dryers (40



Cartons, metal boxes or waterproof

paper bags; separated from other

herbs; in dry, air-conditioned places

Ginger root About 10 months after

planting

In the sun for a day In dry, dark, and cool places

Hop seeds In the summer

(July–September),

when matured

In the shade; in dryers (60



C) Textile bags; on shelves in dry,

well-aired places

Continued

3104 HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks

Herb material Harvesting time Drying Packaging and storage

Horehound aerial

parts

During flowering in the

summer (June–August)

In shady, well-aired places Paper, well-closed bags

Juniper berries August–October In the sun with frequent turning;

in dryers (maximum 40



Jute bags; in dry, well-aired places

Lavender flowers During flowering

(from mid-June to mid-July)

In dry, well-aired places, or in

dryers (40–45



Bags or bales

Liquorice roots In the third or fourth year

(September–October)

Stacked, in the field; in dryers

(50



C) after thorough cleaning

Stacks covered with hay; the clean

roots are packed in bags

Lovage aerial

parts and

flowers

During flowering In shady, well-aired places Bags or bales

Lungwort

aerial parts

During flowering (March–April) In shady, well-aired places Paper bags

Marjoram

aerial parts

During flowering

(July to mid-August)

Immediately after harvest;

in well-aired places; in dryers

(40



Bags or bales

Motherwort

aerial parts

During flowering

(June–August)

In well-aired places; in dryers

(50–60



Bales; on shelves in dark, cool and

well-aired places

Orris root Second or third year, in

July or August

In the sun for 5 or 6 days;

complete drying in well-aired

places

Textile bags

Pansy aerial

parts and

flowers

During flowering (in summer) In shady, well-aired places Paper bags or bales

Peppermint leaves During flowering (in summer) Left in the field to fade and

lose 50% of water (may be

used to distil); further drying

in shady, well-aired places

Cartons or paper bags

Roman chamomile

aerial parts

During flowering (April–June) In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40



Cartons, metal boxes or waterproof

paper bags; separated from other

herbs; in dry, air-conditioned places

Roman

wormwood

aerial parts

During flowering

(July–September)

In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40–45



Bags or bales; in dry, well-aired

places

Rosemary

leaves

May–October In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (35–45



Jute or paper bags; in dry,

air-conditioned places

Saffron flowers During flowering In shady, well-aired places Paper bags

Savory aerial

parts

During flowering (April–July) In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (35



Paper bags

Star anis seeds When fully ripened In shady or dark, well-aired

places with frequent turning

Paper bags; in dry places

Sweet clover

aerial parts

During flowering (June–July) In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40



Paper bags

Sweet marjoram

aerial parts

Immediately before flowering

(June–September)

In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40



Bags

Tarragon leaves July–September In well-aired places; must be

green

Jute bales; in dry, dark places

Valerian roots In early spring or in autumn In well-aired places; in dryers

(35–40



Jute bales or bags; in dry,

well-aired places

Wild thyme

aerial parts

and flowers

During flowering (May–July) In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (35–40



Bags or bales; on shelves in dry,

well-aired places

Woodruff aerial

parts and

flowers

During flowering (May–August) In the shade, with frequent

turning

Well-closed containers

Wormwood

aerial parts

During flowering (July–August) In shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40–45



Bags or bales; in dry, well-aired

places

Yarrow

aerial parts

and flowers

During flowering (June–August) In dry, shady, well-aired places;

in dryers (40–45



Cartons; in dry, cool, well-aired

places

Table 2 Continued

HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks 3105

Drying

0014 Fresh herbs are perishable to varying degrees and can

be stored for only a limited period of time without

spoiling. Spoilage and deterioration in quality of

herbs are recognized by changes in color, flavor, and

overall appearance. With proper handling proced-

ures, spoilage can be prevented, and shelf-life can be

significantly extended.

0015 Drying is a simple and most common method of

preserving herbs; dried herbs can be used all year

round. Herbs or their parts should be dried immedi-

ately after harvesting to decrease the risk of spoilage

and the loss of volatile oils. Dried herbs are also

relatively immune to microbial spoilage.

0016 Drying a herb or its parts involves removing an

amount of water from the herb material by evapor-

ation in the open or in a heated air flow. The principle

of drying is the same for all herbs, although specific

drying conditions may be required, as can be seen

in Table 2.

0017 The oldest method of drying herbs, usually used in

the case of wild aromatic herbs, is drying in the open.

The herb materials are spread thinly in suitable shady

or dark and well-aired places (on the floor, on shelves,

in the attic, or in trays). The herb materials should not

be turned over too often, to avoid their disintegration.

If the herbs are spread too thickly, the danger of

burning increases. The duration and efficiency of

drying depend on weather conditions. Drying can

require a couple of weeks and, if the weather is

rainy, the herbs can be spoiled by decay.

0018 Dehydration in a heated air stream offers obvious

advantages over drying in the open, notably regulated

drying conditions, shorter duration of the process

(several hours or even minutes), fewer flavor and

color changes as well as a decreased danger of spoil-

age. When cultivated, herbs are normally dried in

heated air driers, such as tray, screen-conveyor, or

rotary dryers, to insure efficient drying of large quan-

tities of the herb materials at economic capacity. The

drying conditions are regulated by the air tempera-

ture, relative humidity, and flow rate. With warm air

(40–80



C), the duration of drying is usually a couple

of hours. Drying in hot air (200



C or even higher)

requires a few minutes (2–5 min).

0019 Dried herb materials can be ground, crumbled,

rubbed, or treated by any other suitable method for

further processing, packaging, or storing.

Packaging and Storing

0020 There is always a risk of spoiling and the loss of

volatile compounds during long-term storage, espe-

cially under unfavorable conditions. Generally,

herbs, leaves, and flowers are sensitive, while roots

and seeds endure prolonged storage quite well. Deteri-

oration in quality is accelerated by moisture, light,

oxygen, and elevated temperature. Dried herb mater-

ials are best kept in a dark, dry and well-aired room at

a low temperature. In many cases, the dried herb

materials can be stored satisfactorily in paper, linen,

or cotton bags placed in well-closed containers or

bins. Properly dried and packed herb materials

(Table 2) can be kept at room temperature for months,

or even a couple of years. Sometimes, storage appears

to favor development of the aromatic principles,

probably owing to the action of the specific enzymes.

Production of Essences

0021The processing of herb materials is usually carried out

using traditional methods, notably hydrodistillation

and solvent extraction, the main goal being to recover

their essences: essential oils and extracts. These

essences are very suitable for direct application in

alcoholic drink preparation as they insure higher

consistency in quality of the alcoholic drink. In add-

ition, they are more easily stored, with less danger of

spoiling during long-term storage, although their

flavor properties seldom compare favorably with

those of the herb materials from which they were

recovered. In the case of essential oils, this distortion

is caused by chemical interchanges resulting in arti-

facts, the evaporation of the low-boiling components,

the dissolution of certain water-soluble components

in the still liquors, and the degradation of nonvolatile

cellular matter during hydrodistillation.

0022For complete isolation of valuable essences, the

herb material must be properly prepared by com-

minution to some extent, which depends on the

nature of the herb material. Flowers are usually dis-

tilled uncomminuted, leaves are ground, seeds must

be thoroughly crushed, while roots and arid stalks

should be cut into smaller pieces. For this purpose,

standard equipment can be used, e.g., roller mills for

crushing seeds, cutters for chopping roots, and similar

comminuting machines. When comminuted, the herb

materials should be immediately processed to hinder

the loss of volatile flavorings.

0023The essential oils are mainly recovered from the

herb materials by hydrodistillation. The herb material

is put into a still and heated with direct steam (steam

distillation); it can also be immersed in warm water

(water distillation) or placed on the perforated plate

above the bottom of the still partially filled with

water (steam and water distillation), and then heated

by any of the usual methods. Water distillation is well

suited for finely powdered materials and flowers;

water and steam distillation is favorable for herb

and leaves; and steam distillation is most successful

for seeds and roots. The resulting vapor mixture

3106 HERBS/Herbs Used in Alcoholic Drinks

passes through a condenser, and the condensate is

collected in a Florentine flask where the essential oil

is separated from the water; this water can be

returned to the still or, in some cases, used as fragrant

water (aquae aromaticae). The duration of a batch

distillation depends on the procedure applied, the

kind of herb materials, and the extent to which the

herb material is comminuted. Steam distillation re-

quires a shorter time for completion than steam

and water or water distillation. The essential oils

from aerial parts or leaves are usually recovered

after 1.5–2 h, from seeds after 4–6 h, and from roots

after 6–8 h. In general, the distillation of comminuted

herb material requires half the time for complete

recovery, as compared with uncomminuted material,

and gives higher yields of oil. Different methods of

distillation result in essential oils of different compos-

ition. The yield of essential oil depends upon several

factors, including the age of the herb material, its

geographical origin, weather conditions, and the

method of distillation. On distillation at atmospheric

pressure, thermolabile components can be decom-

posed and, in such cases, the application of reduced

pressure is suggested; in some cases, distillation at an

increased pressure is preferred. It is possible to apply

solvent extraction first and then to submit the extract

thus obtained to steam distillation at reduced

pressure, as in the case of orris root.

0024 Traditional extraction processes involve the use of

high-proof alcohols, and these are widely employed

for dried herbs, leaves, and roots. The extracts

obtained have the ‘true,’ natural odor of the herbal

materials. The methods commonly applied are macer-

ation, percolation, and digestion. The extracts

obtained are sometimes concentrated by distilling off

the alcohol under vacuum. The products, so-called

resinoids, are usually dark, viscous, almost solid, and

can be used in the flavoring of alcoholic drinks.

0025 Extraction with dense carbon diooxide (CO

)has

also been applied in the removal of essences from

some herbs. Dense CO

has many advantages over

conventional organic solvents. It is without color,

odor, or taste, easily removable from the extract,

chemically inert, and nonflammable. In the subcrit-

ical state, liquid CO

behaves as a selective, nonpolar

solvent, which under normal operating conditions

(0–10



C, 50–80 bar) dissolves virtually all the useful

flavor components. CO

-extracted juniper berry oil

has already been used in the flavoring of gin. The

essential oil of ginger roots has also been obtained

by liquid CO

extraction. Due to the higher pressure

and temperature applied, supercritical CO

has a

higher solvent power than the liquid CO

. Extraction

with supercritical CO

is carried out at relatively low

temperature (usually 40–60



C) and high pressure

(200–500 bar). It is important that the dissolving

power and selectivity can be controlled by selection

of adequate pressure/temperature combination.

Many aromatic herbs have been extracted with super-

critical CO

, such as coriander seeds, rosemary, sage,

and peppermint leaves.

See also: Beers: History and Types; Microbreweries;

Brandy and Cognac: Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac

and their Manufacture; Gin: The Product and its

Manufacture; Wines: Types of Table Wine