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during this 12-h period. At source, these values

should not normally exceed 20 ml

1

at 20–22



in 72 h and 5 ml

1

at 37



C in 24 h, respectively, on

the understanding that they are to be considered as

guide figures and not as maximum permitted con-

centrations. Further, the natural mineral water may

not contain any organoleptic defects.

0007 All containers used for packaging natural mineral

water shall be fitted with closure designed to pro-

tect against any adulteration or contamination.

0008 The labeling of the containers used for the pack-

aging of mineral water must include certain man-

datory information. The name should specify the

type of water such as ‘natural mineral water,’‘nat-

urally carbonated mineral water,’ and ‘carbonated

natural mineral water.’ The label should also give

the place where the spring is exploited and a state-

ment of the analytical composition giving its

characteristic constituents. It is not permitted to

market natural mineral water from the same

spring under more than one trade description. It

is also prohibited to mention both on the pack-

aging or labels a characteristic that the water does

not possess, especially with regard to treatment or

cure of human illness.

0009 Exploitation of a natural mineral water spring

shall be subject to permission from responsible

authority of the country where the water has

been extracted.

0010 Equipment for exploiting the water must be so

installed as to avoid any possibility of contamin-

ation and to preserve the properties of the water at

source.

0011 When the natural mineral water at source becomes

polluted and no longer meets the microbiological

criterion for human consumption, all operations

leading to the commercial sale should be sus-

pended. It is the responsibility of the local authority

to undertake periodic checks to control the original

characteristics of the natural mineral water.

0012 In developing countries, the regulations concern-

ing the marketing of natural mineral water vary

significantly from country to country. Even for the

export of natural mineral water from industrial-

ized to developing countries, the directive above

may not apply.

The last report of the FAO/WHO codex standard in

1997 did not deviate significantly from the above

directive.

History of Consumption

0013 Water has always been of vital importance to man’s

health and well-being. Water originating or flowing

from hot or cold springs with a strong odor or taste

has always excited the imagination of humans. The

human race has used such spring waters in a variety of

ways throughout history. Mineral wells and spas are

found all over the world. From time immemorial,

healing powers have been attributed to water from

mineral springs, wells, and spas. Even at present,

water from such sources in many parts of the world,

especially in developing countries, is accredited with

miraculous properties. Many of the well-known

health resorts in the world became famous mainly

because of the mineral springs originating there. Mil-

lions of people visit such resorts every year hoping to

gain relief from many chronic diseases, such as arth-

ritis and skin diseases. Large numbers of patients have

subjectively benefited from visits to such health

resorts. Except for a few elements such as sulfur and

fluorine, the concentrations of other minerals and

trace elements in many spa waters are very low. Sci-

entifically, there is little evidence suggesting any

physiological or pharmacological action resulting

from mineral or trace element contents in spas,

except, in some cases, laxation.

0014From the Middle Ages came herbal brewing, an-

other forerunner of modern packaged drinks. Such

brews, flavored with nettles or dandelions, were

made by boiling the locally available water. Such

brews continued as part of the housewife’s art for

many decades, and in the 1820s, brewed ginger beer

first became commercially available. In 1772, Joseph

Priestly, a British scientist, published a method of

producing artificially carbonated water. This devel-

opment ultimately resulted in the commercial produc-

tion of artificial mineral water during the latter part

of the eighteenth century. From a public health point

of view, the introduction of this artificial mineral

water might have been a turning point from a bacteri-

cidal point of view. Originally, these waters were

taken primarily for medical reasons prescribed by

doctors for their patients. When it was possible to

analyze the mineral composition of spa waters, arti-

fically carbonated waters were fortified with the same

mineral and trace element concentrations and sold as

copies of the original spa water in various parts of

Europe until after World War II. Later on, the use of

these artificially carbonated waters became common

owing to the pollution of urban water supplies. At

present, such is the situation in the urban regions of

most developing countries.

0015Populations in many European countries have

consumed mineral waters from ancient times. The

best-known waters come from France and Germany.

Packaged waters from underground formations in

Perrier, Contrexeville, Vichy, Appollinaris, and

Evian are exported on a large scale. In North America,

4014 MINERAL WATER/Types of Mineral Water

the tradition of drinking mineral water is not as

old as that in Europe. However, the packaged water

industry in the USA and Canada has experienced

radical growth owing to consumer awareness about

the quality and taste of drinking water. In a recent

survey conducted in the USA, more than 60% of

consumers of packaged mineral water cited taste

and harmful chemicals in the tap water as the primary

reasons for buying packaged mineral water. The case

is much the same with other affluent countries. The

consumption of packaged mineral water has in-

creased significantly in many European countries

during the last few decades. This can be attributed

to environmental, demographic, and aggressive

marketing strategies. Consumers, especially in urban

areas, have become increasingly concerned with the

pollution of water supplies. Packaged mineral water,

however, allows the consumer to control the quality,

appearance, and taste of the water. Demographically,

well-educated families have moved into high-income

brackets with high levels of income. This factor,

coupled with the modern trend in health conscious-

ness, has positioned packaged mineral water at the

forefront of the beverage category. Additionally, the

prestige value of well-known brand names with con-

notations of quality has become a status symbol of

high-income families. Finally, the aggressive

marketing efforts by manufacturers of packaged min-

eral water have accelerated the growth in consump-

tion of mineral water. In certain affluent countries

such as Sweden, drinking of alcoholic beverages and

driving is strictly controlled, and this in turn has

increased the consumption of mineral waters on

social occasions.

Health Implications

0016 From a nutritional point of view, water is an essential

constituent of diet. The dissolved substances in

water include traces of essential and toxic elements.

Since the concentration of these dissolved substances

in drinking water varies from place to place, the

total quantity of water consumed during a 24-h

period affects the amount of these substances in the

diet. In certain tropical regions of the globe, the water

consumed during a 24-h period can be substantial.

Although fasting on water to cure disease has dimin-

ished greatly in Western countries during the last

few decades, a great deal has been written lately in

the popular medical literature about the relationship

between the presence of mineral elements such as

calcium and magnesium in water and certain diseases

in man, especially cardiovascular diseases.

0017 Drinking water in many parts of the world is a

good source of trace elements. It is also an important

source with regards to the intake of certain unwanted

components such as toxic metals, nitrates, and a

number of organic and inorganic substances from

industrial discharges and fertilizers. Any beneficial

health effect that may be attributed to mineral water

is likely to be due to its mineral content and freedom

from pathogenic organisms. Table 2 shows the con-

centration of a number of trace elements that are

allowed in natural mineral water according to the

FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarious Commission.

0018The essential mineral and trace element content in

commercially available mineral waters in most parts

of the world is so low that it will hardly influence the

overall mineral and trace-element metabolism. In a

limited number of studies, it has been found that

mineral water from certain areas in Europe and

North America contains levels higher than the per-

mitted levels of a few trace elements, particularly that

of iodine and fluorine. A few cases of osteofluorosis

have been reported in individuals consuming mineral

water containing higher than the permitted levels of

fluorine. Such cases were observed when the fluorine

levels were around 8 mg or more per liter. The cal-

cium content may also vary considerably between

different brands of still and carbonated mineral

waters. Increased consumption of such mineral

waters may not be ideal for individuals who are sus-

ceptible to stone formation in the urinary tract. In

certain areas of the former Soviet Union, the con-

sumption of highly mineralized water is known to

be very high, and a correlation has been noted be-

tween the amount of water consumed and the concen-

tration of crystal-forming substances in the urine of

tbl0002Table 2 Levels of certain trace elements allowed in natural

mineral water (FAO/WHO)

Element Concentration (mg l

1

)

Antimony 0.005

Arsenic (total) 0.05

Barium 1.00

Boron (as borate) 5.00

Cadmium 0.003

Chromium (total) 0.05

Copper 1.00

Cyanide 0.07

Fluoride

1.00

Lead 0.01

Manganese 2.00

Mercury 0.001

Nickel 0.02

Nitrate 50.00

Nitrite 0.02

Selenium 0.05

The levels of fluoride should be declared in the labeling by a general

warning ‘contains fluorides’ when the levels are higher than 1 mg l

1

, and

when it contains more than 2 mg l

1

, it should be stated that this water is

not suitable for infants and children under the age of 7 years.

MINERAL WATER/Types of Mineral Water 4015

adults and children. The same is the case with radio-

active elements. An increased content of radon has

been found in some of the wells in the USA and

Europe. In some European countries where radon

mineral water is used for treatment of diseases, an

increased incidence of lung cancer has been reported

in employees working in the spas.

0019 In comparison with the amount of mineral water

consumed in different parts of the world, the inci-

dence of adverse effects described in literature, is,

however, negligible. When one takes into consider-

ation the ill health caused by waterborne diseases in

many parts of the world, the introduction of mineral

water that is free from pathogenic organisms can play

a role in protecting societies from such diseases. At

the same time, the considerable increase in mineral

water sales in developed countries during the last few

decades has compelled the public health authorities to

set up very strict regulations concerning the quality of

mineral water. (See Calcium: Physiology; Heavy

Metal Toxicology; Iodine: Physiology; Nitrosamines;

Trace Elements; Water Supplies: Water Treatment.)

0020 Commercially available mineral waters have no

calories or alcohol. These two qualities make mineral

water a suitable beverage for low-calorie diets. It is

not uncommon for doctors to prescribe mineral water

to pregnant women and infants, especially in areas

where the drinking water contains high levels of ni-

trates and fluorides. In recent years, attention has

been focused on the health hazard arising from the

ingestion of nitrates and nitrites. Nitrate, when re-

duced to nitrite, is a precursor of the carcinogenic

nitrosamine or nitrosamide. The extensive use of fer-

tilizers in recent years has resulted in the contamin-

ation of drinking water with nitrates in many parts of

the world. The situation is much worse in most de-

veloping countries. In such areas, mineral water can

be an excellent substitute for drinking water for risk

groups such as pregnant women, infants, and young

children. Drinking water in some parts of the world

may also contain significant amounts of toxic elem-

ents, including arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead.

Contamination of ground water with arsenic, for

example, in Bangladesh and West Bengal is currently

a serious health problem in Bangladesh and India.

Several million people are affected by this contamin-

ation. Mineral water, however, has only negligible

amounts of these elements (see Table 2). During the

last few decades, a number of investigations have

reported an association between the calcium–magne-

sium (water hardness) contents of drinking water and

mortality from ischemic heart disease. Most brands

of mineral water that are commercially available at

present do not have a high concentration of calcium

or magnesium. Since mineral water contains no

alcohol, it is an ideal beverage to drink before driving.

Mineral water has become very common and popular

as a healthy beverage during social gatherings in af-

fluent countries owing to the low level of alcohol (in

some countries like Sweden, almost zero level) that is

permitted to be consumed before driving.

0021In conclusion, mineral water per se has no medi-

cinal property other than being free from pathogenic

organisms. The mineral salts and trace elements pre-

sent in many of the well-known brands of mineral

water are in such low concentration as to be virtually

devoid of physiological or pharmacological action.

The possible exceptions are with regards to the con-

tent of fluorine, calcium, and some toxic metals and

metalloids such as arsenic. Mineral waters are usually

free from chlorine, and the taste is often superior to

treated water.

Trends in Consumption

0022In recent years, sales of commercially available min-

eral waters have rapidly expanded, transforming

mineral water from a market niche to a sizeable

mainstream market segment, in many countries. The

reasons for this growth have already been described.

People enjoy still and carbonated waters all over the

world. Sales of packaged waters in Europe and North

America have risen considerably in recent years. The

consumption of packaged water in some countries

such as the UK and the Netherlands is somewhat

modest when compared with that of the other central

European countries. The demand, however, is grow-

ing steadily in most countries. The per capita con-

sumption of packaged mineral water a decade ago in

the central European region was around 80 l. The

corresponding figures in the UK and USA were 23

and 28 l, respectively. Even in East European coun-

tries, the per capita consumption of mineral water

was significant during the last couple of decades.

In the former Yugoslavia, the per capita consump-

tion during the 1990s was around 20 l. Although the

consumption of mineral water, especially still water,

is fairly common in the former Soviet Union, con-

sumption data are not currently available. The

same applies to many countries in Asia where the

consumption of packaged mineral water is significant

mainly owing to the poor quality of public water

and the increase in tourism. Generally speaking,

the per capita consumption of packaged mineral

water in most affluent countries has more than

doubled during the last decade. This trend is likely

to increase in future years as a result of a heightening

of the consumer awareness of health and increas-

ing concern about the quality and taste of public

drinking water.

4016 MINERAL WATER/Types of Mineral Water

See also: Calcium: Physiology; Heavy Metal Toxicology;

Iodine: Physiology; Nitrosamines; Trace Elements;

Water Supplies: Water Treatment

Further Reading

Abdulla M, Jagerstad M, Svensson S, Norden A and

Dencker I (1979) Water, nutrition and old age. Scandi-

navian Journal of Gastroenterology 14 (Supplement 52):

203–207.

European Commission (1996) Directive 96/70/CE of the

European Parliament and of the Council of 28 October

1996 amending Council Directive 80/777/EEC on the

Approximation of the Laws of the Member States Relat-

ing to the Exploitation and Marketing of Natural Min-

eral Waters, O.J. No. L 229, 23.11.96, p. 26.

Golding AMB, Noah N and Stanwell-Smith R (eds) (1994)

Water and Public Health. Nishimura, London: Smith-

Gordon.

New York State Department of Health (1991) Chapter 1,

State Sanitary Code, Part 5: Drinking Water Supplies,

Sub part 5–6: Bottled and Bulk Water Standard, May

1991.

World Health Organization (1996) Guidelines for Drink-

ing-water Quality, vol. 2, Health Criteria and Other

Supporting Information, 2nd edn, Geneva: WHO.

Sources and Analysis

H Kussmaul, Institut Fresenius, Taunusstein, Germany

Background

0001 Mineral water is a special form of groundwater, from

which it differs in its composition and properties. The

criteria for differentiation can lie in increased mineral

content, elevated carbon dioxide content, elevated

spring (source) temperature, or the presence of higher

concentrations of trace substances such as iron,

iodine, sulfur, fluoride, or radon. Such mineral springs

have been preferred by people from ancient times,

whether for drinking or bathing, because mineral

waters often have, or are associated with, beneficial

health properties.

0002 There is no generally applicable definition of

mineral waters. They are often bottled or canned

and marketed as beverages on account of their pleas-

ant taste and their claimed beneficial properties. Most

countries, however, have regulations concerning such

mineral waters that define what is required of the

product.

0003The countries of the European Community, for

example, have guidelines for the production of, and

trade in, natural mineral waters that have been

adopted as national law by the individual member

states. Here, it is required that natural mineral water

shall differ appreciably from drinking water. Mineral

water is water that meets the following special criteria:

0004It has its origin in underground water resources

that are protected from contamination and

obtained from one or more natural or artificial

sources.

0005It is of original purity.

0006It possesses particular nutritional–physiological

effects on account of its content of minerals, trace

elements, or other components.

0007Its composition, temperature, and other character-

istics remain constant within defined limits of

natural variation.

Some countries (e.g., Germany) lay down maximum

permissible concentrations for toxic substances

(Table 1). The European Commission is currently

discussing uniform limits for such substances, in

some cases the limits will be more stringent.

0008The use of the product description ‘natural mineral

water’ for such a packaged beverage requires that

compliance with the defining characteristics has

been checked officially and that the product has

been recognized officially as a natural mineral water.

0009The natural purity requirement presumes that there

is no microbiological or chemical danger of anthro-

pogenic or environmental origin.

0010Once a source has been officially recognized for

natural mineral water, it must be exploited in such a

manner that all possibility of contamination is

avoided and that the characteristics of the water

tbl0001Table 1 Permissible limits for natural mineral water (Germany)

Substance Limit (mgl

1

)Calculatedas

Arsenic0.05/0.005

Cadmium 0.005 Cd

Chromium, total 0.05 Cr

Mercury 0.001 Hg

Nickel 0.05 Ni

Lead 0.05 Pb

Antimony 0.01 Sb

Selenium, total 0.01 Se

Borate 30 BO

3

Barium 1 Ba

Sodium20

Nitrate10

Nitrite0.02

Sulfate240

Fluoride0.7

Manganese0.05

Declaration: Suitable for the preparation of baby food.

MINERAL WATER/Sources and Analysis 4017

that justify its being a natural mineral water are

maintained when it leaves the source.

0011 It is forbidden to process the water or to add sub-

stances to it during the packaging, with the excep-

tions that unstable components such as iron or sulfur

compounds may be removed, and carbon dioxide

may be added to the water. In particular, it is forbid-

den to disinfect the water by any means or to add

microbiological inhibitors. Any other treatment to

change the microbial count of the natural mineral

water is also forbidden.

0012 In the USA, there are no uniform, special rules for

mineral water. It is covered by the regulations of the

bottled water standards. If the major components

exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for

drinking water, this must be stated on the label, for

instance; the following phrases are used in New York:

0013 This is a mineral water and should not be used as a sole

source of drinking water

if bottled water products have received exemption

from only the esthetic-related inorganic chemical

MCL or

This water contains levels of minerals in excess of stand-

ards for drinking water established by the New York

State Commissioner of Health and, therefore, should

not be used as a principal or sole source of drinking

water.

if bottled water products have received exemption

from the health-related MCL.

0015 Furthermore, in the USA, all bottled water must be

disinfected, which is forbidden in Europe. The stand-

ards in Florida allow, in this case, that imported

water, which may not be disinfected in its land of

origin, may be imported into Florida without being

subjected to disinfection.

0016 With certain exceptions, the rules for many other

countries lie between these two extremes, of mineral

water that differs appreciably from drinking water

in the countries of the European Community and

mineral water that is on the same footing as drinking

water in the USA.

Sources

0017 Natural mineral water is obtained either from free-

flowing natural sources or from artificially con-

structed wells. Sources or wells are to be so

constructed that microbiological or chemical contam-

ination of the natural mineral water is prevented. The

measures concerned involve securing the exit from

free-flowing sources, and building a well-head and

seal between bore and piping in the case of a well.

The conveyance and transport of the water must

be carried out using piping that does not contaminate

the water and that is proof against corrosion by the

mineral water, which is often aggressive against iron

(not stainless steel) pipes.

0018Mineral and thermal waters often come from great

depths. The temperature of the water increases with

the depth from which it is drawn, the geothermal

gradient normally amounts to 3



C per 100-m depth.

Water that is appreciably above average in tempera-

ture (for example, by more than 10



C) is frequently

referred to as ‘thermal water.’ The composition of

the mineral water depends on the composition of the

underground rocks through which it flows. Lime-

stone and dolomite rocks produce calcium or cal-

cium–magnesium–hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)

waters; salt deposits yield sodium chloride water; and

the rocks lying over salt deposits yield calcium sulfate

waters. The amount of dissolved minerals is a func-

tion of the time spent underground and the solubility

of the individual minerals. The solubility can be

considerably increased by the influence of volcanic

carbon dioxide or elevated temperatures. However,

primary rocks, e.g., in Scandinavia, are very insoluble

and yield very few minerals to the water obtained

from them.

0019Since water often flows great distances through

various rocky strata and remains underground for

decades or centuries, the waters that are produced

are frequently not pure simple water types, but mix-

tures of waters of various compositions that come

together either underground or during extraction.

Analysis and Composition

0020The extent of a mineral water analysis depends on the

purpose for which it is being made. Microbiological

analysis and analysis of the major components and

characteristic minor components are generally suffi-

cient for the control of a mineral water. A basic

investigation or an application for official recognition

require a more comprehensive analysis that covers

the inorganic and organic traces, as completely as

possible, as well as including the microbiological

status and the major components.

0021Sampling is simple when bottled mineral water is

investigated. The product is sampled immediately

after filling, or a sample is purchased from a retail

outlet. However, proper sampling is essential if a rep-

resentative analysis is to be obtained from the source.

A range of measurements together with the variable

parameters such as temperature, redox potential,

oxygen content, carbon dioxide content, and radio-

activity should be carried out on-site. Other constitu-

ents, e.g., iron(II) compounds, hydrogen sulfide, and

cyanides, require stabilization in order to allow their

determination in the laboratory without change.

4018 MINERAL WATER/Sources and Analysis

Major Components

0022 The major components of mineral waters are the

cations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and

calcium, and the chloride, sulfate, and hydrogen

carbonate (bicarbonate) anions. The amounts and

proportions depend on the rocky strata that have

been permeated. The composition of a well-known

German mineral water is given as an example in

Table 2. Refer to individual minerals.

0023 The first column gives the named ion’s mass con-

centration in milligrams per liter. The next column

gives the equivalent concentration of the individual

components in millimoles per liter. The sum of the

equivalent concentrations of the cations must be iden-

tical to the sum of the equivalent concentrations of

the anions. The last column reports the equivalent

proportion of the individual ions with respect to

the total number of equivalents. This provides a par-

ticularly clear indication of the characteristics of the

water. In the present case, it is a sodium–magnesium–

bicarbonate–chloride water. The slightly or com-

pletely nonionic undissociated components primarily

consist of silicic acid, whose concentration depends

on the temperature of the region from which the

water is obtained, and boric acid. The sum of the

mass concentrations of cations, anions, and undisso-

ciated components yields the total mineral content of

the water.

0024 In addition, it is important for the assessment of a

mineral water to measure the content and compos-

ition of dissolved gases. Higher concentrations of

carbon dioxide come primarily from water of vol-

canic origin. Groundwaters from great depths do

not normally contain oxygen, as they are present in

a reduced, anaerobic state. In addition to carbon

dioxide, they contain nitrogen, increased concentra-

tions of noble gases, and sometimes low-molecular-

weight hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane.

Apart from increased concentrations of carbon

dioxide and radon, the composition of the gases in

groundwaters from nearer the surface is broadly in

agreement with the composition of air.

Inorganic Trace Substances

0025Deep waters with elevated mineral contents more

frequently contain higher concentrations of trace sub-

stances than the groundwater from near the surface,

which is often used to supply drinking water. How-

ever, these higher concentrations are natural and do

not indicate anthropogenic contamination.

0026The EC guidelines are general and state only that

heavy metals should be analyzed. The German min-

eral water regulation lays down which inorganic trace

substances must be investigated. Some maximum

permissible concentrations are laid down that are

frequently equal to the limiting concentrations for

drinking water (Table 1). (See Heavy Metal Toxicol-

ogy and Refer to individual metals.)

Organic Compounds

0027The organic substances in mineral waters are charac-

terized in summation by the coefficients of spectral

absorbance at 254 and 436 nm, by the dissolved or-

ganic carbon, and by the amount oxidized with po-

tassium permanganate. The extractable substances,

tbl0002 Table 2 Main components of ‘Apollinaris’ naturally sparkling mineral water

Mass concentration (mg l

1

) Equivalent concentration (meq l

1

) Equivalent percentage

Cations

Sodium (Na

) 430 18.70 57.19

Potassium (K

) 28 0.7161 2.19

Magnesium (Mg

2þ

) 105 8.640 26.42

Calcium (Ca

2þ

) 93 4.641 14.19

Barium (Ba

2þ

) 0.031 0.0005

Manganese (Mn

2þ

) 0.002 0.0001

Iron (Fe

) 0.006 0.0002

Total 656 32.70 100

Anions

Fluoride (F



) 0.65 0.0342 0.10

Chloride (Cl



) 134 3.780 11.51

Nitrate (NO



) 7.0 0.1129 0.34

Sulfate (SO

2

) 106 2.207 6.72

Hydrogen carbonate (HCO



) 1630 26.71 81.32

Total 1878 32.84 100

Undissociated substances

Silicic acid (meta) (H

SiO

) 26.7

To t a l 2561

MINERAL WATER/Sources and Analysis 4019

the organic nitrogen, the phenol index, and the con-

centration of surface-active substances, where raised

levels can provide an indication of environmental

pollution, are also determined. The same is also true

of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols.

Indicators of environmental pollution such as chlor-

inated solvents, chlorinated phenols, plant-protection

agents and pesticides, high-boiling-point halogenated

compounds and aromatics, plasticizers, and antioxi-

dants are only determined with respect to the original

purity. Their presence is of anthropogenic origin. In

such a case, it is not possible to guarantee the original

purity, which is a prerequisite for official recognition

as a natural mineral water. (See Contamination of

Food; Pesticides and Herbicides: Toxicology; Phen-

olic Compounds; Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar-

bons.)

0028 Ratios of natural isotopes are frequently employed

to determine the origin and age.

Microbiological Analysis

0029 The legal regulations describe and lay down precisely

the requirements and methods to be used in the

microbiological investigations.

Methods of Chemical Analysis

0030 Since the concentrations encountered are frequently

higher than those occurring in drinking water, the

methods used for the chemical analysis of mineral

waters are often specially adapted and validated.

The traditionally tested methods of water analysis

still have their place, however. For example, gravim-

etry is the preferred method for high concentrations

of alkaline earths (magnesium, calcium, strontium)

and for sulfate concentrations; titrimetry is of import-

ance for the determination of chloride and hydrogen

carbonate. However, many of the modern instrumen-

tal methods of analysis must also be used. Atomic

absorption spectroscopy, atomic-emission spectrom-

etry with inductively coupled plasma, gas chromatog-

raphy, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry,

and high-performance liquid chromatography have

established indispensable positions in the analysis of

inorganic and organic trace substances. Ion chroma-

tography finds its major application in the rapid

determination of the major anions. (See Chroma-

tography: Gas Chromatography; High-performance

Liquid Chromatography; Mass Spectrometry: Prin-

ciples and Instrumentation.)

See also: Chromatography: High-performance Liquid

Chromatography; Gas Chromatography; Contamination

of Food; Heavy Metal Toxicology; Mass Spectrometry:

Principles and Instrumentation; Pesticides and

Herbicides: Toxicology; Phenolic Compounds;

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Further Reading

American Public Health Association (1998) Standard

Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,

20th edn. Washington, DC: American Public Health

Association.

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (2002) Official

Methods of Analysis of the AOAC.

EEC (1980) Council Directive of 15 July 1980 on the

Approximation of the Laws of the Member States Relat-

ing to the Exploitation and Marketing of Natural Min-

eral Waters 80/777 EEC. J.E.C. No. L 229/1, Amended

October 1996 (96/70/EC) J.E.C. L 330.

Fachgruppe Wasserchemie in der GdCH (2002) Deutsche

Einheitsverfahren zur Wasser-, Abwasser- und Schlam-

muntersuchung. Wiley: VCH Weinheim, no. 53.

Federal Register (USA) (1995) Part III Dept Health and

Human Services: 21 CFR Part 103. Beverages Bottled

Water; Final Rule, Nov. 13.

Fresenius W, Quentin KE and Schneider W (1988) Water

Analysis. New York: Springer.

World Health Organization (1993) Guidelines for Drinking

water Quality, vol. 1, 2nd edn. Geneva: WHO.

Bottling and Storage

H Kussmaul, Institut Fresenius, Taunusstein,

Germany

Introduction

0001As in the previous article concerning the definition

of mineral waters, when discussing the processing of

mineral waters from their extraction at the source

to their filling into bottles or other types of pack-

aging, it is necessary to distinguish between the

requirements placed specifically on natural mineral

waters by the European Community (EC) guidelines

and international Codex Alimentarius Standard 108

and those for the filling of drinking water (bottled

water).

0002The EC guidelines and the Codex Standard require

that the extraction, storage, and filling be carried out

in such a manner that impurities are avoided and that

the properties the water possesses as it leaves the

source, and which justify its character as a natural

mineral water, are preserved. In particular, it is neces-

sary to insure that:

4020 MINERAL WATER/Bottling and Storage

1.0003 The source and the exit from the source are

protected from danger of contamination.

0004 Attachments, piping and containers are made of

materials suitable for mineral water and are so

constructed that they do not cause any detrimental

chemical, physical, or microbiological changes to

the water.

0005 The technical facilities, in particular the bottle-

filling and cleansing plant, meet the hygiene

requirements.

0006 The containers are so treated or manufactured

that they do not change the microbiological or

chemical characteristics of the water.

Mineral Water Extraction and Storage

0007 In accordance with the EC guidelines on the exploit-

ation of mineral water sources, mineral water is

mostly extracted through a stainless-steel riser by

means of a submerged pump and transported to

the filling facility in suitable piping (hard polyvi-

nyl chloride (PVC) or high-density polyethylene

(HDPE)). The piping must be constructed so that

microbiological and chemical contamination cannot

reach the water.

0008 In some regions of the EC, e.g., Italy, the water may

not be pumped but must travel to the filling plant and

the packing line under natural pressure.

0009 There are often storage facilities to form a buffer

supply. This means that the water can be pumped

continuously from the source at a moderate rate

even though the filling facility is only operated on

working days for one, two, or three shifts.

0010 In order to avoid deleterious effects on the water as

it passes through the piping or stands in the storage

tank, the surfaces must be smooth and no growth of

microorganisms should occur, otherwise reduction or

oxidation processes might take place in the water.

Ammonia could be oxidized to undesirable nitrite,

or nitrate reduced to nitrite, depending on the condi-

tions. Hence, the piping and storage vessels must

be cleaned regularly. This can be done by means

of chemical, thermal, or mechanical cleansing and

disinfection measures. (See Cleaning Procedures in

the Factory: Types of Detergent; Types of Disinfect-

ant; Overall Approach.)

Water Preparation

0011 In the USA all the water preparation measures applic-

able to drinking water may be used that are thought

necessary. The standard for the state of New York

reads:

0012 All bottled water facilities packaging water for distri-

bution in New York State must provide satisfactory

treatment of each water supply source used. Minimum

treatment of each water supply source used shall be

disinfection by chlorination, ozonation, ultraviolet radi-

ation, or other disinfection methods as protective of the

public health as the above.

Since drinking water in the USA is normally heavily

chlorinated, ozone is frequently used to disinfect

bottled water in order to avoid a chlorine flavor.

0013

In the countries of the EC, on the other hand,

mineral water may not be subjected to any processing

at all; it is merely permitted to remove from natural

mineral water unstable components which could alter

the properties of the water as it is bottled or while

in the bottle. These are primarily iron and sulfur

compounds.

0014Iron often occurs in mineral waters that originate

at great depth in reduced bivalent form. This is un-

stable in the presence of air and is oxidized to triva-

lent iron by oxygen in the air, causing the formation

of yellowish or, in the presence of manganese, brown-

ish floccules in the water. This is unattractive to the

consumer. For this reason it is permissible to remove

this naturally occurring iron from the water by

oxidation and filtration.

0015Reduced mineral waters also often contain

reduced sulfur compounds, usually hydrogen sulfide.

As is well known, in such cases the water has a

smell reminiscent of rotten eggs. This smell

would also be unpleasant in the bottles and it is thus

necessary to remove these naturally occurring sulfur

compounds by aeration or oxidation, followed, if

necessary, by filtration. In EC countries it is necessary

to declare on the label that iron or sulfur has been

removed.

0016Carbon dioxide may be removed from heavily

carbonated waters if this is necessary for filling.

There is also the possibility, frequently made use of

in some countries, of adding carbon dioxide to the

water, thus endowing it with a refreshing, tickling

flavor.

0017Other treatment processes, such as the addition or

removal of mineral substances, are forbidden for nat-

ural mineral water in the EC. The disinfection of the

water is explicitly forbidden. Rather, the microbio-

logical state of the water must always be satisfactory

at the source, and deterioration must be avoided

before the water is filled.

Filling and Packaging

0018In the countries of the EC, natural mineral water that

is to be marketed must be filled at the source. Filling is

carried out on high-speed filling machines, generally

into bottles, which can be made of glass or plastic.

Only limited quantities are filled into cans (aluminum

MINERAL WATER/Bottling and Storage 4021

or tinned steel) and soft packagings (tetrapacks,

combiblocks, etc.).

0019 Disposable glass bottles are often used, which are

purchased from glassmakers and are intended to be

recycled to the glass works in a voluntary manner.

Mineral water is mostly filled into reusable glass

bottles in Germany. These are standard returnable

bottles that can be refilled c. 40–70 times.

0020 The plastic bottles that are usually or exclusively

(e.g., in Arab countries) used in some countries, are

primarily made from polyvinylchlorides (PVC), poly-

ethylenes (PE), or polyethyleneterephthalats (PET);

they are either bought-in ready for use or blown

from blanks (preforms) on site. The plastic bottles in

use at the present time are disposable bottles, while

returnable PET plastic bottles are now in use for

nonalcoholic beverages; these are still under test in

the case of mineral water. However, for environmen-

tal reasons it will be impossible to avoid their use in so

far as they allow unrestricted production of mineral

water.

0021 Complicated, multistage cleansing machines that

supply acceptably cleaned bottles for filling are

required for reusable glass or plastic bottles. The

acceptable condition of the bottles must be monitored

by an expensive bottle-checking system. The control

of reusable plastic bottles has been found to be

particularly expensive since it must also be insured

that substances that may have been adsorbed on to

the walls are completely removed. Expensive gas-

sensitive detectors are necessary for this purpose.

0022 The package used for filling of natural mineral

water must be fitted with a cap that is suitable for

preventing adulteration or contamination. This serves

to protect the consumer, who can then establish

whether the container is in its original state or

whether it has been tampered with.

Labeling

0023For the labeling of all bottled waters in the USA, each

label shall indicate:

0024the type of source water: spring water, well water,

public water supply, etc. (for distilled water, the

type of source water does not need to be indicated)

0025address and location of the bottling facility or

corporate offices

0026net contents and/or capacity of the container

0027the certificate number

There can be individual differences from state to

state. Mineral waters containing high concentrations

of mineral substances must, if necessary, be labeled

to point out that the drinking water standards

are exceeded for certain substances.

0028In the countries of the EC there are special labeling

rules for natural mineral water. The marketing name

is always ‘natural mineral water,’ with a possible

indication concerning the carbon dioxide content:

0029‘naturally carbonated natural mineral water’ means

water whose carbon dioxide content from the

spring after decanting, if any, and bottling is

the same as at source, taking into account where

appropriate the reintroduction of a quantity of

carbon dioxide from the same water table or de-

posit equivalent to that released in the course of

those operations and subject to the usual technical

tolerances;

0030‘natural mineral water fortified with gas from the

spring’ means water whose carbon dioxide content

from the water table or deposit after decanting, if

any, and bottling is greater than that established at

source;

0031‘carbonated natural mineral water’ means water to

which carbon dioxide has been added from a

tbl0001 Table 1 Labeling indications relating to the composition of mineral waters (EC)

Indications Stipulation

Low mineral content The inorganic constituents, calculated as dry residue, shall not be above 500 mg l

1

Very low mineral content The inorganic constituents, calculated as dry residue, shall not be above 50 mg l

1

Rich in mineral salts The inorganic constituents, calculated as dry residue, shall be above 1500 mg l

1

Contains bicarbonate The bicarbonate content shall be above 600 mg l

1

Contains sulfate The sulfate content shall be above 200 mg l

1

Contains calcium The calcium content shall be above 150 mg l

1

Contains magnesium The magnesium content shall be above 50 mg l

1

Contains fluoride The fluoride content shall be above 1 mg l

1

Contains iron The bivalent iron content shall be above 1 mg l

1

Acidic The free carbon dioxide content shall be above 250 mg l

1

Contains sodium The sodium content shall be above 200 mg l

1

Suitable for the preparation of infant food Different regulations apply in the various member states

Suitable for a sodium-reduced diet The sodium content shall not be above 20 mg l

1

May be laxative –

May be diuretic –

4022 MINERAL WATER/Bottling and Storage

source other than the water table or deposit from

which the water comes.

0032 The label must also state the site and name of

the source, the composition of the water, details of

the mode of treatment (not every country), and min-

imum storage life. If the label provides information

concerning particular components or special suitabil-

ities, the requirements listed in Table 1 apply. For

instance, statements concerning the diuretic or laxa-

tive properties of the water are not allowed in some

EC countries, e.g., Germany, since such indications

are reserved for medicinal mineral waters.

0033 In general the various member states lay down their

own regulations for labeling natural mineral waters

that go beyond the EC requirements, and which

cannot be reported in detail here. Sometimes the labels

must be submitted for certification or authorization.

See also: Cleaning Procedures in the Factory: Types of

Detergent; Types of Disinfectant; Overall Approach;

Mineral Water: Sources and Analysis