Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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Basidiomycetes, the basidiospores are formed ex-

ogenously on the basidia (Figure 10).

0031 Ornamentation of basidiospores The color of the

spore print immediately after collection of a species

may help to identify a species. Basidiospores are of

various colors, shapes, sizes, and arrangements

(Figure 11). In fact, they are one of the most useful

features in mushroom taxonomy. They may be hya-

line and thin-walled, as in Agaricus and Pleurotus, set

for immediate germination; they cannot carry out the

function of surviving to the next season. In some

cases, they are thick-walled and variously orna-

mented to survive to the next season and also result

in effective dissemination. Peridioles of Cyathus

species exemplify a special mode of dissemination,

that is effected by a drop of rain water. In fact, basi-

diospores of various mushroom species are micro-

scopic objects of ornamentation on the earth

(Table 4).

0032Vegetative reproduction Several mushroom species

multiply using structures other than asco- or basidios-

pores (Table 5). Oidia represent thin-walled asexual

spores that participate in germination. Chlamydo-

spores are thick-walled spores produced vegetatively

from mycelial cells, that resist the unfavorable condi-

tions and germinate under the onset of favorable

conditions. Sclerotia are thick-walled, conspicuous

mycelial tufts of different sizes. These provide an

easier means of producing the fruiting bodies in

Morchella.InPleurotus tuber-regium, the sclerotium

carries out the function of sustaining during unfavor-

able weather conditions. Thus, mushroom species, as

the mostly highly evolved of the fungi, have reminis-

cent characteristics of primitive fungi, which have

served to prolong the life cycle and create alternative

means of perpetuating the species.

Importance of Identification and Classification

0033Identification of mushrooms is a very difficult job in

mycology, and the specimens collected, because of

their delicacy, should be handled with care. Marking

the characteristics of the species in situ in nature for

shape, size, color, flavor, and latex, if any, and collect-

ing spore print are essential in the field/forest or zone/

area of collection. Further identification rests on the

spore morphology and, to some extent, on the char-

acteristics of the mycelium. It may be easy in some

cases to assign the correct class, order, and family to

mushrooms collected in the field, but assigning a

genus and species requires more knowledge. If it is a

new species, more interest would be evinced in under-

standing the edibility, life cycle, growth substrate,

periodicity of fructification, enzymes secreted, and

possibility of artificial culturing and any special fea-

ture in reducing environmental pollution by biodeg-

radation of toxic compounds. Thus, the identification

and classification of mushroom species may be diffi-

cult but sometimes rewarding.

0034The Royal Botanical Gardens, in Kew, London

maintains records of all species discovered to date.

Another dimension of natural collection of any mush-

room species, its identification and characterization,

tbl0002 Table 2 Variations in morphology

Characteristics Present (þ)/

absent ()

Mushroom

species

Edible/

poisonous

Annulus  Volvariella volva cea Edible

Amanita vaginata Poisonous

Annulus þ Agaricus bisporus Edible

Agaricus xanthodermus Poisonous

Volva  Agaricus bisporus Edible

Scleroderma citrinum Poisonous

Volva þ Volvariella volva cea Edible

Amanita crocera Inedible

Both þ Lepiota procera Edible

Amanita porphyria Poisonous

Both  Russula virescens Edible

Lactarius helvus Poisonous

Stipe central Agaricus compestris

Russula cyanoxantha

Stipe excentric Pleurotus florida

Polyporus squamosus

Stipe absent Tremella mesenterica

Hirneola auricula-judae

fig0006 Figure 6 Structure of a typical mushroom. (a), volva; (b), stipe;

(c), annulus; (d), gills; (e), pileus; (f), scales (remnants of univer-

sal veil).

4044 MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Classification and Morphology

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Classification and Morphology 4045

involves the maintenance of its culture in viable

but importantly vigorous. Often, the culture may

be viable but cannot yield to fructification on growth.

In the American Type Culture Collection in Rock-

ville, USA, identified mushroom cultures can be

deposited and given a code number. This has led to

a centralized system in which mushroom cultures

from any area of the world can be deposited and

made available for study, which would not otherwise

be possible if species/cultures were lodged only with

collectors.

Poisonous Mushrooms

0035It is very difficult to state whether a mushroom is

poisonous or edible. Traditionally, mushroom species

have been classed as ‘poisonous,’ nonfatal but causing

stomach upset, termed ‘inedible,’ and ‘edible.’

0036At present, animal-feeding trials are the best way

to identify the poisonous varieties, but some of the

characteristics relating to poisonous species are:

0037bright-spored, with both annulus and volva – Ama-

nita spp.;

(j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o)

fig0007 Figure 7 Morphological variations of mushrooms and truffles. (a) Amanita muscaria; (b) Lactarius turpis; (c) Russula sardonia; (d)

Mycena galopus; (e) Coprinus comatus; (f) Agaricus campestris; (g) Tr i c h o l o m a g a mb o s um ; (h) Entoloma clypeatum; (i) Calocera viscosa; (j)

Coriolus versicolor; (k) Scleroderma citrinum; (l) Geastrum fornicatum; (m) Cyathus olla; (n) Morchella esculenta; (o) Tuber melanosporum.

4046 MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Classification and Morphology

tbl0003 Table 3 Coloration of various mushroom species

Color Edible Poisonous

Red/brick red deep reddish brown Russula nigricans Amanita muscaria

Yellow/greenish yellow yellowish red Amanita citrina Hypholoma fasiculare

Tremella mesenterica

Light brown/brown/coffee brown Polyporus squamosus Scleroderma citrinum

Hygrophorus hypothejus Paxillus involutus

Grayish/grayish brown Amanita vaginata Amanita porphyria

Boletus scaber

Orange/orange red Boletus grevillei Boletus satanas

Lactarius deliciosus

Violet/purple blue Lepista nuda Mycena pura

Russula cyanoxantha

Green Russula virescens Amanita phalloides

White Clitocybe nebularis

Agaricus bisporus

abc

fig0009 Figure 9 Orientation of gills in mushrooms. (a) free gills with

shallow convex cap; (b) decurrent gills with funnel-shaped cap;

conico-campanulate cap; (e) sinuate gills for cap with incurved

margin.

fig0010Figure 10 Ascus and basidium. (a) ascus with ascospores;

(b) basidium with basidiospores.

gh i

cdef

fig0011Figure 11 Shape and ornamentation of the basidiospores.

(a) globular; (b) oval; (c) ellipsoid; (d) cylindrical; (e) fusoid;

(f) angular; (g) echinulate; (h) warted; (i) reticulate.

fig0008 Figure 8 Structure of the hymenium. (a) paraphysis; (b) cysti-

dium; (c) basidiospore; (d) basidium.

MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Classification and Morphology 4047

.0038 oozing yellow latex on rupture of the surface –

Psalliota xanthoderma;

0039 spore print turning greenish (copper compounds) –

Lepiota morgani;

0040 luminescent – Clitocybe illudens.

See also: Mushrooms and Truffles: Use of Wild

Mushrooms; Mycotoxins: Classifications; Occurrence

and Determination; Toxicology

Further Reading

Alexopoulos CJ (1961) Introductory Mycology. London:

John Wiley.

Chang ST and Quimio TH (eds) (1982) Tropical Mush-

rooms – Biological Nature and Cultivation Methods.

Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.

Chang ST, Buswell JA and Miles PG (eds) (1993) Genetics

and Breeding of Edible Mushrooms. Philadelphia, USA:

Gordon & Breach.

Christensen CM (1969) Common Edible Mushrooms.

Minneapolis, USA: The University of Minnesota Press.

Elliott TJ (1985) The general biology of the mushroom. In:

Flegg PB, Spencer DM and Wood DA (eds) The Biology

and Technology of the Cultivated Mushroom. New

York: John Wiley.

Hard ME (1976) Mushrooms, Edible and Otherwise. New

York: Dover.

Largent DL (1973) How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus.

1: Macroscopic Features. Eureka, CA: Mad River Press.

Rajarathnam S and Zakia B (1987) Pleurotus mushrooms.

Part IA. Morphology. life cycle, taxonomy, breeding,

and cultivation. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science

and Nutrition 26(2): 157–223.

Rajarathnam S, Shashirekha MN and Zakia B (1992) Bio-

potentialities of the Basidiomacromycetes. Advances in

Applied Microbiology 32: 234–361.

Ramsbottom J (1989) Mushrooms and Toadstools.

London: Bloomsbury Books.

Singer R (1961) Mushrooms and Truffles. New York: Inter-

science.

Svrc

ek M (1975) Mushrooms and Fungi. London: Octopus

Books.

Wilkinson J and Buczacki S (1982) Mushrooms and Toad-

stools. Glasgow: Harper Collins.

Use of Wild Mushrooms

S Rajarathnam and M N Sashirekha, Central Food

Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India

Background

0001Mushrooms were regarded by the early civilizations

of Egypt and Rome as a special delicacy and were

perceived by the Romans as the food of the gods.

A clear indication of the high esteem in which mush-

rooms were held by different cultures is provided by

the practice of restricting the use and consumption of

many species to the rulers of the time. The medicinal

and analeptic qualities of mushrooms, the scientific

basis for which we are only just beginning to under-

stand, have long been appreciated by the Chinese.

Legend states that Chinese emperors consumed

Lentinus edodes in large quantities to fend off old

age. Other accounts tell us that the ancient Japanese

courts valued these mushrooms for their aphro-

disiac properties. ‘The growing sites were well

hidden and heavily guarded.’ One species of mush-

room, Ganoderma, is cultivated today strictly for its

medicinal benefits. It is now realized that mush-

rooms have an important role to play in the recycling

of organic wastes, thereby relieving environmental

pollution.

Useful Chemical Constituents

0002Mushrooms are known for their characteristic biting

texture and pleasant aroma. These properties have

derived the meaning for mushrooms as items of food

delicacy. In recent years, it has been well proven

and documented in the world literature that mush-

rooms do provide definite nutrition and health bene-

fits for humans. Significant compositional changes

occur with a strain as a result of differences in age

tbl0004 Table 4 Morphology of spores of various mushroom species

Shape Mushroom species

Globular Helvella elastica, Pseudohydnum gelatinosum

Oval Paxillus involutus, Pholiota squamosa

Ellipsoid Collybia dryophila

Cylindrical Polyporus squamosus, Calocera viscosa

Fusoid Inonotus hispidus

Angular Entoloma sinuatum

Echinulate Laccaria laccata, Cortinarius mucosus

Warted Peziza badioconfusa, Ramaria aurea

Reticulate Lactarius volemus, Lactarius helvus

tbl0005 Table 5 Forms of vegetative reproduction

Types Mushroom species

Oidia Pleurotus cystidiosus

Chlamydospores Agaricus spp.

Volvariella spp.

Sclerotium Morchella esculenta

Pleurotus tuber-regium

4048 MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms

or stage of development, lapse of time after harvest,

study of different portions of a single fruiting body,

the inaccuracies inherent in the methods of analysis,

and the relative precision of the analyst. In order to

insure universal comparison of the analytical values

of different workers, it is worth expressing all the

analytical data on dry weight of the fruiting bodies,

since it is well known that mushrooms in general

contain about 90% moisture in fresh form. Mush-

rooms on a dry-weight basis contain 63% carbohy-

drates, 25% protein, 4% fat, and the remaining 8% is

accounted by minerals represented by ash (Table 1).

Most carbohydrates are in the polymeric form, glu-

can and hemicellulose types; starch as such is absent.

Mannitol and trehalose represent the bulk of free

sugars. Accordingly, the energy value is also relatively

less. Mushrooms do contain considerable amounts of

dietary fiber.

0003 Protein represents the major fraction next to

carbohydrates. The fraction 4.38 is used to convert

nitrogen into mushroom protein (instead of the

general factor 6.25), excluding nonprotein nitrogen

in the form of chitin present in the cell walls.

Albumins and globulins predominate in the protein

fraction of Boletus edulis and Cantharaellus cibarius.

Free amino acids account for nearly one-fifth of the

total nitrogen. Protein is made up of most of

the essential amino acids; however, some essential

sulfur-containing and aromatic amino acids are

lacking. Based on the amino acid analysis, several

indices are used to predict the nutritional quality of

the mushroom.

0004Mushrooms are relatively low in fat content. The

fat includes representatives of all classes of lipid com-

pounds, including free fatty acids, mono-, di-, and

triglycerides, sterols, sterol esters, and phospholipids.

There is a preponderance of unsaturated fatty acids,

in particular linoleic acid (78% of the total fatty

acids). It is the degree of unsaturation of fatty acids in

mushrooms that reflects on their safety in consump-

tion without any danger of atherosclerosis.

0005The ash is mainly composed of calcium, potassium,

phosphorus, and ferrous iron (Table 2). Some species

also contain germanium, which is known for main-

taining vitality in humans. Mushrooms have a special

feature of bioaccumulation of minerals available in

their growth medium. This property is useful in pro-

viding desired minerals in good quantities. When they

accumulate toxic elements, they become dangerous

for consumption.

tbl0001 Table 1 Composition

of mushrooms

Mushroom species Crude protein (N 4.38) Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash Energy value (kcal)

Agaricus bisporus 26.3 1.8 59.9 10.4 12.0 328

Auricularia auricula-judae 8.1 1.5 81.0 6.9 9.4 356

Boletus edulis 29.7 3.1 59.7 8.0 7.5 362

Cantharellus cibarius 21.5 5.0 64.9 11.2 8.6 353

Coprinus comatus 25.4 3.3 58.8 7.3 12.5 366

Flammulina velutipes 17.6 1.9 73.1 3.7 7.4 378

Lentinus edodes 17.5 8.0 67.5 8.0 7.0 387

Lycoperdon lilacinum 46.0 7.5 38.8 12.3 7.7 358

Pholiota nameko 20.8 4.2 66.7 6.3 8.3 372

Pleurotus florida 18.9 1.7 58.0 11.5 9.3 265

Termitomyces microcarpus 27.4 4.3 54.2 2.2 14.1 364

Tr i c h o l o ma species 16.7 3.1 71.9 12.9 8.3 342

Volvariella esculenta 34.4 20.6 31.7 11.2 13.3 396

On a dry-weight basis.

tbl0002 Table 2 Mineral content

of mushrooms

Mushroom species Ca P K Fe

(mg100 g

1

)(mg100g

1

)(mg100g

1

)(ppm)

Pleurotus florida 24 1850 4660 184

Agaricus campestris 23 1429 4762 186

Volvariella diplasia 58 1042 3333 177

Lentinus edodes 118 650 1246 30.3

Flammulina velutipes 19 278 2981 11

Pholiota nameko 42 771 2083 22

Auricularia polytricha 287 Trace 47

Tricholoma matsutake 26 640 41 417

On a dry-weight basis.

MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms 4049

0006 Mushrooms are a good source of several vitamins.

Species of Pleurotus are estimated to contain pre-

dominantly vitamins of B-complex and folic acid.

Relative to Auricularia, Lentinus, and Volvariella,

the thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin content of Pleur-

otus species were higher (Table 3). Considering the

amount of vitamins contributed by 100 g fresh Pleur-

otus mushrooms as a percentage of the requirement

level indicated by the Food and Agriculture Organ-

ization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO)

per person per day and allowing for differences in

moisture contents, Pleurotus mushrooms are a

particularly good source for meeting the human

requirements for riboflavin and folic acid (Table 4).

0007 Mushrooms are known for their B-complex vita-

mins (niacin, thiamin, and B

) and folic acid. Their

ability to contain these vitamins, even during their

growth on lignocellulosic wastes, eventually substan-

tiates their biosynthetic capacities. In fact, folate

synthetase and B

synthetase enzyme systems have

been demonstrated in mushroom cells.

Food Value

0008 Determination or prediction of the nutritional value

of mushrooms (Table 5) has been made possible

based on their content of essential amino acids.

0009 The amino acid score is the amount of the most

limiting amino acid in the food protein expressed as a

percentage of that amino acid present in a reference

protein.

Amino acid score ¼

mg of amino acid in 1 g test protein

mg of amino acid in 1 g reference protein

 100

0010The essential amino acid (EAA) index evaluates the

quality of dietary protein in terms of the ratio of the

EAA contained in a food, relative to the EAA content

of the reference protein, mostly egg.

EAA ¼

ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ

Lysine

 tryptophan

 histidine

Lysine

 tryptophan

 histidine

where p ¼food protein, s ¼standard (egg), and n ¼the

number of amino acids.

0011The biological value is a measure of the nitrogen

retained by the body after consuming the test protein.

Biological value ¼ 10:9 ðEAA indexÞ11:7

0012In an attempt to resolve the difficulties inherent in

comparisons between those mushrooms containing

small amounts of high-quality protein with those

containing larger amounts of a protein of lesser nutri-

tional quality, the use of a nutritional index has been

proposed:

Nutritional index ¼

EAA indexpercentage protein

100

0013Amino acid scores and EAA indices of the most

nutritive mushrooms (highest values) rank in poten-

tial nutritive value with those of meat and milk, and

are significantly higher than those for most legumes

and vegetables. The least nutritive mushrooms rank

appreciably lower but are still comparable to some

common/nutritious vegetables.

As Flavor Ingredients

0014In general, mushroom flavor substances are deriva-

tives of fatty acids and nucleotides. Flavor is the most

tbl0003 Table 3 Vitamin contents of mushrooms

Mushroom species Ascorbic acid

Thiamin

Niacin

Riboflavin

Pantothenic acid

Folic acid

Pleurotus florida 113 1.36 72.9 7.88 29.4 1412

Agaricus bisporus 82 1.14 56.19 4.95 22.8 933

Auricularia auricula-judae 0.16 4.10 0.48

Lentinus edodes 0.40 11.90 0.90

Volvariella volvacea 0.32 59.5 2.73

Flammulina velutipes 46.3 6.10 5.2 106.5

Pholiota nameko 18.8 72.9 14.6

mg 100 g

1

dry mushrooms.

mg100g

1

dry mushrooms.

tbl0004 Table 4 Vitamins contributed by 100 g fresh Pleurotus

mushrooms as a percentage of the daily requirement

recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World

Health Organization (FAO/WHO)

per person

Ascorbic acid Thiamin Niacin Riboflavin Folicacid

Adult man 24–43 10–15 26–33 33–39 53–60

(30) (1.2) (19.8) (1.8) (0.2)

Adult women 24–43 13–19 36–46 46–54 53–60

(30) (0.9) (14.5) (1.3) (0.2)

Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Group (1974) Rome: FAO.

Note: Figures in parentheses are values in mg recommended intake by

FAO/WHO per person per day.

4050 MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms

important inducement for past and present wide-

spread consumption of wild and commercially

grown edible mushrooms. As many as 150 volatile

compounds have been identified in various mush-

room species. A series of eight carbon (C

) com-

pounds are believed to be the most important

volatile flavor compounds. It has been demonstrated

that some of the C

and C

compounds can be enzy-

matically formed from linoleic and linolenic acids,

both of which are usually predominant in fruiting

bodies. The gills were found to be the major compart-

ment for the metabolic interconversion of fatty acids

into aromatic compounds. 1-Octen-3-ol is the general

fresh mushroom flavor, whereas 1-Octen-3-one

represents the dried-mushroom flavor. Several alco-

hols, aldehydes, ketones, and phenols are known to

be mushroom flavor components characteristic of

each species.

0015 Umami, the full, rounded taste (as defined by the

Japanese) of a mushroom, is predominantly the result

of the presence of monosodium glutamate, further

improved with addition of minor amounts of nucleot-

ides, such as guanidine monophosphate (GMP) and

adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Tricholomic acid

and ibotenic acid have been found in Tricholoma

muscarium and Amanita pantherina, respectively.

These amino acids have higher threshold values than

that of glutamic acid in evoking the umami flavor. It is

of great interest that these two amino acids are toxic to

flies. A Japanese proverb states that the Tricholoma

matsutake is noted for its aroma and Lyophyllum

shimeji is noted for its taste. The aroma components

of T. matsutake are matsutakeol and methyl cinna-

mate. A sulfur-containing compound, lenthinic acid,

in fresh Lentinus edodes is flavorless, but it is con-

verted by heat to lenthionin, which is responsible for

the specific flavor, when L. edodes is dried.

As Source of Enzymes

0016 Mushrooms are involved in the rotting of wood.

Studies have been performed on many enzymes

produced by cultured mushroom mycelia internally

or externally. Mushrooms (basidiomycetes and a part

of ascomycetes) are generally divided into lignin-

hydrolyzing fungi (oxidoreductase producers) and

cellulose-hydrolyzing fungi (hydrolase producers). In

addition to phenol oxidase and cellulase, there are

many reports on other mushroom enzymes, including

protease, pectinase, chitinase, hemicellulase, amylase,

and various glycosidases.

As Indicators of Toxic Elements

0017Mushrooms have a natural tendency to bioaccumu-

late the minerals from their growth substrates.

Agaricus campestris finds use as a bioindicator

species to trace the concentrations of silver. Phanero-

chaetae chrysosporium was most effective in sorption

of lead compared with species of Polyporus, Volvar-

iella, and Pleurotus. Coprinus species is shown to be

able to methylate mercury after the transformation of

mercury from the soil humus. The ability of several

mushroom species to bioaccumulate cadmium, zinc,

lead, copper, nickle, and manganese in their fruiting

bodies is employed to monitor the intensity of envir-

onmental pollution. Several toxic metals are select-

ively sorbed from industrial waste waters by

mushrooms. Inonatus nikadol is used to recover ur-

anium selectively from the culture medium.

Biological Uses

0018Many mushrooms, such as Ganoderma lucidum,

Coriolus versicolor, Hericium erinaceus, Armillaria

mellea, Marasmius androsaceus, Tremella fuciformis,

and Lentinus edodes, have traditionally been used as

medicine and tonics in China, Korea, and Japan

(Tables 6 and 7). Terpenoids, substances which

inhibit growth of cancer cells such as He La cells

in vitro (chemotherapeutic agents), have been found

in Ganoderma lucidum. Steroids in Coriolus versico-

lor and Agaricus blazei, novel g-pyrones, esinapyrones

A and B, cytotoxic novel phenols hericenones A and B,

tbl0005 Table 5 Estimated nutritive values of mushrooms

Mushroom species Essentialamino acid index Biologicalvalue Nutritionalindex Amino acid score

Agaricus bisporus 55.8 49.1 17.0 36

Boletus edulis 76.6 71.8 9.3 37

Cantharellus cibarius 86.2 82.3 3.0 68

Lentinus edodes 55.8 49.1 9.8 40

Pleurotus florida 84.5 80.4 15.9 67

Russula vesca 88.9 85.2 6.0 70

Termitomyces microcarpus 74.7 69.7 20.5 45

Volvariella displasia 87.6 84.1 25.1 71

Using egg as reference protein.

MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms 4051

and novel fatty acid in Hericium eriaceus, as well as

lampterol (illudin-S) in Lampteromyces japonicus,

represent other inhibitors of growth of cancer cells.

The germanium content of mushroom is involved in

carcinostatic and analgesic functions. Many polysac-

charides exhibiting remarkable antitumor activity

in vivo have been isolated from various species of

mushrooms belonging to Polyporaceae, Tricholoma-

taceae, and Agaricaceae through screening studies

using sarcoma-180 in mice (Table 8). These anti-

tumor substances are regarded as a kind of biological

response modifier (BRM) – immunotherapeutic

agents, whose activities are based on the activation

of immunological functions in a host.

0019 Biological properties of several of the natural

mushroom species due to the components present

in them are presented in Table 9. This information

reflects on the diverse manifestations of medicinal

properties of these mushrooms.

0020 ‘Mushroom nutraceuticals’ represent the medicinal

preparations from mushrooms. They are functional

foods which are enriched or modified and consumed

as normal diet to provide health-giving benefits. They

are refined or partially defined extractives which are

consumed in the form of capsules or tablets, as a

dietary supplement (not a food) and which has poten-

tial therapeutic applications, increasing resistance to

diseases and causing regression in disease state.

Nutraceuticals are not to be confused with pharma-

ceuticals which are defined chemical preparations,

specifications for which are listed in a pharmaco-

poeia, and are mainly used therapeutically; pharma-

ceuticals have high potency, so the chances of

overdose and toxicity require regulation by the au-

thorities. Mushrooms with little scope of toxicity and

overdose do not require very strict regulation and can

be sold as ‘over-the-counter’ medicines.

0021In the recent past, a variety of medicinal prepar-

ations in the form of tablets, capsules, and extracts

from mushrooms have been produced and marketed.

In 1991, the value of the world mushroom crop was

estimated at $8.5 billion and in the same year $1.2

billion were estimated to have been generated from

medicinal products of mushrooms. In 1987 PSK, a

top selling anticancer drug from the mushroom Cor-

iolus versicolor, had annual sales in Japan totalling

$358 million and accounted for 25.5% of the coun-

try’s total sales of anticancer drugs. It was not without

reason that production of Grifola, Lentinula, and

tbl0006 Table 6 Use of mushrooms as drugs in China

Mushroom species Indication

Agaricus bisporus Stimulating digestion, curing

hypertension

Auricularia polytricha Strengthening health, helping blood

circulation

Boletus edulis Causing muscles and joints to relax

Coriolus versicolor Curing chronic disease

Ganoderma lucidum Rejuvenating effect, neurasthenia

Grifola frondosa Strengthening health and resisting

diseases

Hericium erinaceus Beneficial to heart, kidneys, liver, lungs,

spleen

Lentinus edodes Strengthening health and resisting

diseases

Pleurotus ostreatus Causing muscles and joints to relax

Tr e m e l l a f u c i f o r m i s Strength, health, and resisting diseases

Tricholoma mongolicum Beneficial to stomach and intestine

tbl0007 Table 7 Medicinal effects of mushrooms

Japanese name Mushroom Medicinal effects

Shiitake Lentinus edodes Antiinflammation, antitumorigenic, gastroenteropathy, headache, vertigo, hepatocirrhosis,

arteriosclerosis

Fukurotake Volvariella volvacea Hypotensive, immunopotentiator, reduce cholesterol

Bukuryou Poria cocos Diuresis, edema, vertigo, dipsia, anxiety, neurosis, insomnia, antitumorigenic

Shirokikurage Tr e m e l l a f u c i f or m i s Cough, sore throat, stethalgia, constipation, paramenia

Yamabushitake Hericium erinaceus Indigestion, neurasthenia, gastric ulcer, antitumorigenic

Tohtyukasoh Cordyceps sinensis Mild roborant, expectorant, antitussive, antiinflammation

tbl0008Table 8 Antitumor activities of water extracts of mushroom

species (against sarcoma – 180 in mice)

Mushroom species Tumorinhibition (%)

Polyporaceae

Ganoderma tsugae 77

Coriolus versicolor 77

Trametes gibbosa 49

Fomes fomentarios 5

Tricholomataceae

Lentinus edodes 80

Flammulina velutipes 81

Pleurotus ostreatus 75

Tricholoma matsutake 91

Strophariaceae

Pholiota nameko 86

Agaricaceae

Agaricus bisporus 2

Auriculariaceae

Auricularia auricula-judae 42

4052 MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms

Hypsizygus – three prominent medicinal mushrooms

– registered a 102, 110, and 141% increase respect-

ively during 1990–94.

Toxic Components in Poisonous

Mushrooms

0022 Mushroom poisoning accounts for approximately

70% of natural poisoning and often causes death.

However, there are only 30–50 poisonous species

among the thousands of species found on earth, and

of these, no more than 10 are fatally poisonous.

Nevertheless, many cases of mushroom poisoning

are reported every year. There is no convenient way

to distinguish edible mushrooms from poisonous

ones. All the folklore about detecting poisonous

mushrooms is not true. For example, poisonous mush-

rooms do not blacken silver spoons when cooked

with mushrooms, as folklore claims. The best way

to avoid risk is to learn the physical features of each

species. If 10 of the most poisonous mushrooms were

recognized by mushroom pickers, the number of cases

of mushroom poisoning would decrease dramatically.

0023 Amanita phalloides, the green death cap, is known

as the most dangerous and poisonous mushroom. It is

widely distributed in Europe and North America and

is responsible for 90–95% of fatal mushroom poison-

ings. Cholera-like symptoms – nausea, vomiting, and

diarrhea – of Amanita poisoning begin 10–20 h after

ingestion; severe damage to the liver and kidney

follows, and this damage finally leads to death. The

cyclic peptides, the amatoxins, and the phallatoxins

have been isolated as the toxic principles. A. virosa

(Table 10), the ‘destroying angel,’ is as toxic as

A. phalloides because it contains an amatoxin,

amaninamide.

0024Amino acids structurally related to glutamic acid

have been obtained as mushroom toxins. Some of

them made significant contributions to neurobio-

logical research because of the biological and clinical

importance of glutamic acid. Acromelic acids isolated

from Clitocybe acromelalga are neurotoxins showing

highly potent activity as glutamate agonists. This

mushroom, found only in Japan, has been known to

induce unique symptoms. If ingested, it causes severe

pain and reddish edema in the fingers and toes, which

is similar to acromelalgia and erythromelalgia, and

the symptoms persist for a month or so.

0025Amanita muscaria has a brilliant red cap flecked

with white spots and is undoubtedly the best-known

poisonous mushroom in the world. It is widely

distributed throughout the world, except for tropical

zones. The mushrooms belonging to the genus

Inocybe contain far greater amounts of muscarine

than do the A. muscaria, so that ingestion of Inocybe

mushrooms induces typical symptoms of muscarine

poisoning. Psilicybin and psilocin are well-known

mushroom toxins with hallucinogenic effects detected

in the majority of Psilocybe species. These alkaloids

act on the central nervous system because the struc-

ture and activity are similar to those of the known

hallucinogen, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

0026Thus, mushrooms constitute a unique class of

foods praised and priced because of their characteris-

tic biting texture and pleasant aroma, and are aptly

regarded as a food delicacy. They serve to comple-

ment and supplement the human diet with various

chemical constituents not encountered in or deficient

in food items of plant or animal origin. They have a

tremendous potential to synthesize components and

constituents not found in the nitrogen-poor, low-

cost, lignocellulosic growth substrates. They can

tbl0009 Table 9 Biological properties of mushrooms

Mushroom species Compound Biologicalproperty

Agaricus blazei Ergosterol derivatives Uterus cervical cancer, He La and hepatoma cells

Armillariella tabescens Armillarisia A Increase secretion of bile

Coriolus versicolor Ergosterol derivatives Uterus cervical cancer, He La and hepatoma cells

Flammulina velutipes Protein Cardiotonic

Ganoderma lucidum Adenosin, guanosin Antithrombolytic

Ganoderma lucidum Organic germanium Pain reducer during final stages of cancer

Ganoderma lucidum Two polysaccharide – protein complexes Hypoglycemic activity

Ganoderma lucidum Triterpenoids Hypotensive

Ganoderma lucidum Heterogalactan – protein complex Antiinflammatory and antiallergic

Hericium erinaceus Hericenones Synthesis of nerve growth factor

Lentinus edodes Adenine derivatives Hypocholesterolemic

Lentinus edodes RNA from the spores Antiviral (influenza infection)

Marasmius androsaceus Marasmic acid Analgesic, sedative effect

Polyporus confluens Polysaccharide Peptic ulcers

Volvariella volva cea Protein Cardiotonic

Various mushroom species Lectins Agglutination of erythrocytes/precipitation of polysaccharide

Various mushroom species Eritadenine, grifolin, neogrifolin Reduction in cholesterol/neutral fat

MUSHROOMS AND TRUFFLES/Use of Wild Mushrooms 4053