Chen C.J. Physics of Solar Energy
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 309 — #336
i
i
i
i
i
i
309
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum (continued)
(eV) AM0 Direct Global (eV) AM0 Direct Global
1.42 591 544 586 1.82 556 471 520
1.43 579 532 572 1.83 554 467 517
1.44 596 544 586 1.84 553 464 513
1.45 554 504 543 1.85 555 464 512
1.46 589 534 577 1.86 556 456 504
1.47 593 530 573 1.87 552 443 489
1.48 589 507 548 1.88 519 422 467
1.49 590 471 508 1.89 519 420 465
1.50 586 453 488 1.90 538 432 477
1.51 587 439 474 1.91 536 425 471
1.52 594 481 521 1.92 542 439 486
1.53 587 521 566 1.93 533 430 474
1.54 585 514 558 1.94 539 430 475
1.55 584 514 557 1.95 535 422 467
1.56 581 509 555 1.96 526 403 446
1.57 592 525 572 1.97 537 403 446
1.58 586 526 572 1.98 519 401 442
1.59 587 526 572 1.99 528 406 450
1.60 583 519 567 2.00 521 404 448
1.61 576 452 493 2.01 511 396 439
1.62 587 212 229 2.02 519 400 443
1.63 584 414 452 2.03 518 397 441
1.64 583 517 564 2.04 522 396 440
1.65 578 511 560 2.05 513 386 430
1.66 577 508 557 2.06 510 383 427
1.67 560 488 535 2.07 513 379 422
1.68 575 485 532 2.08 511 373 413
1.69 570 447 490 2.09 507 369 411
1.70 565 414 454 2.10 481 347 386
1.71 570 427 469 2.11 504 376 420
1.72 559 384 421 2.12 509 380 424
1.73 562 477 526 2.13 499 369 411
1.74 566 485 535 2.14 492 356 398
1.75 567 479 527 2.15 487 351 393
1.76 561 462 509 2.16 496 358 400
1.77 561 467 514 2.17 473 342 383
1.78 564 444 491 2.18 484 354 396
1.79 565 420 462 2.19 466 342 383
1.80 555 396 434 2.20 468 343 385
1.81 556 471 519 2.21 458 336 377
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 310 — #337
i
i
i
i
i
i
310 AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum (continued)
(eV) AM0 Direct Global (eV) AM0 Direct Global
2.22 458 337 379 2.62 365 241 284
2.23 466 342 385 2.63 349 229 271
2.24 460 337 381 2.64 356 233 277
2.25 455 333 376 2.65 339 221 263
2.26 448 326 368 2.66 349 228 271
2.27 451 328 371 2.67 355 230 272
2.28 443 322 365 2.68 355 229 273
2.29 415 302 342 2.69 341 218 261
2.30 434 316 358 2.70 342 218 261
2.31 447 323 366 2.71 347 220 265
2.32 415 299 339 2.72 333 212 253
2.33 443 318 361 2.73 324 204 245
2.34 433 310 354 2.74 344 215 260
2.35 392 282 320 2.75 338 210 254
2.36 429 309 351 2.76 325 201 244
2.37 409 295 335 2.77 320 198 240
2.38 394 283 323 2.78 298 182 221
2.39 356 254 291 2.79 304 184 226
2.40 403 288 330 2.80 302 182 225
2.41 392 279 320 2.81 284 171 209
2.42 414 294 337 2.82 248 148 183
2.43 406 286 328 2.83 274 163 201
2.44 396 277 319 2.84 286 170 210
2.45 410 286 328 2.85 248 146 181
2.46 386 268 309 2.86 255 149 185
2.47 377 263 304 2.87 219 127 158
2.48 385 269 311 2.88 180 104 130
2.49 394 274 316 2.89 234 135 168
2.50 395 274 318 2.90 241 137 172
2.51 383 266 308 2.91 252 143 179
2.52 371 255 297 2.92 247 139 175
2.53 372 256 296 2.93 251 141 178
2.54 357 244 283 2.94 258 144 182
2.55 340 231 269 2.95 237 131 166
2.56 378 256 298 2.96 238 130 166
2.57 385 258 302 2.97 248 135 172
2.58 381 254 297 2.98 249 135 173
2.59 378 250 293 2.99 236 127 163
2.60 367 243 285 3.00 244 130 168
2.61 371 246 289 3.01 234 123 159
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 311 — #338
i
i
i
i
i
i
311
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum (continued)
(eV) AM0 Direct Global (eV) AM0 Direct Global
3.02 208 109 142 3.42 106 39 59
3.03 236 123 160 3.43 101 36 55
3.04 217 112 146 3.44 110 39 60
3.05 221 114 148 3.45 82 29 45
3.06 229 117 153 3.46 84 29 46
3.07 227 115 151 3.47 92 32 50
3.08 235 119 157 3.48 108 37 58
3.09 226 113 150 3.49 115 39 62
3.10 213 106 140 3.50 111 37 59
3.11 161 79 106 3.51 95 32 50
3.12 94 46 61 3.52 99 32 52
3.13 156 75 101 3.53 105 34 55
3.14 114 54 73 3.54 95 30 49
3.15 98 46 63 3.55 90 28 46
3.16 160 75 102 3.56 90 28 46
3.17 157 73 100 3.57 93 29 47
3.18 139 64 88 3.58 92 28 46
3.19 121 56 77 3.59 82 25 41
3.20 124 56 78 3.60 87 26 43
3.21 121 54 75 3.61 98 29 48
3.22 114 51 71 3.62 95 28 47
3.23 85 38 53 3.63 90 26 44
3.24 104 46 64 3.64 98 27 46
3.25 140 61 85 3.65 90 25 43
3.26 130 56 79 3.66 86 23 41
3.27 150 64 91 3.67 77 20 35
3.28 149 63 90 3.68 75 20 34
3.29 126 53 76 3.69 84 22 39
3.30 117 49 70 3.70 90 23 41
3.31 105 43 62 3.71 85 21 36
3.32 119 48 70 3.72 86 21 38
3.33 131 53 77 3.73 88 21 38
3.34 130 52 76 3.74 87 20 36
3.35 141 56 82 3.75 94 22 39
3.36 127 50 73 3.76 91 21 38
3.37 135 52 77 3.77 81 18 32
3.38 139 53 79 3.78 84 17 31
3.39 123 47 70 3.79 86 18 34
3.40 113 43 64 3.80 81 16 30
3.41 112 42 63 3.81 70 13 23
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 312 — #339
i
i
i
i
i
i
312 AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum
AM1.5 Reference Solar Spectrum (continued)
(eV) AM0 Direct Global (eV) AM0 Direct Global
3.82 64 12 23 4.12 31 0 0
3.83 56 10 19 4.13 33 0 0
3.84 59 10 18 4.14 35 0 0
3.85 60 10 19 4.15 33 0 0
3.86 65 11 20 4.16 37 0 0
3.87 64 9 16 4.17 34 0 0
3.88 59 8 16 4.18 38 0 0
3.89 57 7 14 4.19 39 0 0
3.90 65 8 14 4.20 36 0 0
3.91 56 7 13 4.21 36 0 0
3.92 47 5 9 4.22 38 0 0
3.93 52 5 10 4.23 36 0 0
3.94 55 5 9 4.24 38 0 0
3.95 57 4 8 4.25 40 0 0
3.96 54 4 8 4.26 41 0 0
3.97 55 3 7 4.27 38 0 0
3.98 58 3 6 4.28 32 0 0
3.99 50 2 5 4.29 24 0 0
4.00 39 1 3 4.30 20 0 0
4.01 46 1 3 4.31 22 0 0
4.02 49 1 2 4.32 23 0 0
4.03 47 1 2 4.33 15 0 0
4.04 43 0 1 4.34 10 0 0
4.05 44 0 1 4.35 13 0 0
4.06 48 0 1 4.36 19 0 0
4.07 46 0 0 4.37 20 0 0
4.08 47 0 0 4.38 20 0 0
4.09 41 0 0 4.39 17 0 0
4.10 33 0 0 4.40 13 0 0
4.11 34 0 0 4.41 9 0 0
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 313 — #340
i
i
i
i
i
i
List of Symbols
Foundamental Constants
c speed of light in free space 2.998 × 10
8
m/s
h Planck’s constant 6.626 ×10
−34
J·s
Dirac’s constant 1.055 × 10
−34
J·s
k
B
Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 ×10
−23
JK
−1
q elementary charge 1.60×10
−19
C
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67×10
−8
Wm
−2
K
−4
ε
0
electric constant 8.85 ×10
−12
F/m
μ
0
magnetic constant 4π × 10
17
H/m
m
e
electron mass 9.11 ×10
−31
kg
R gas constant 8.31 ×10
3
J kmole
−1
K
−1
General Physics
photon energy J or eV
E electric field intensity V/m
B magnetic field intensity Tesla
A vector potential V·s/m
α absorption coefficient m
−1
A(λ) absorptivity dimensionless
R(λ) reflectivity dimensionless
T (λ) transmittivity dimensionless
Semiconductor Physics
m
∗
effective mass
E
C
bottom of the conduction band
E
V
top of the valance band
E
g
energy gap
E
F
Fermi level or Fermi energy
α
r
recombination rate of holes and electrons
μ
n
mobility of electrons
μ
p
mobility of holes
N
C
effective density of states in conduction band
N
V
effective density of states in valance band
N
A
concentration of acceptors
N
D
concentration of donors
n
i
intrinsic carrier concentration
n
n
concentration of electrons in an n-region
313
Physics of Solar Energy C. Julian Chen
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 315 — #342
i
i
i
i
i
i
Bibliography
[1] Renewables Global Status Report 2007. REN21 Publications, 2007.
[2] Mineral Commodity Summaries. U.S. Geological Survey, 195:95, 2009.
[3] W. Adams. Cooking by Solar Heat. Scientific American, 1878:376, 1878.
[4] E. A. Alsema, M. J. de Wild-Scholten, and V. M. Fthenakis. Environmental im-
pacts of PV electricity generation - a critical comparison of energy supply options.
Proceedings of 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 50:97–147,
2006.
[5] D. Banks. An Introduction to Thermogeology: Ground Source Heating and Cooling.
Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2008.
[6] A. J. Bard and M. A. Fox. Artificial photosynthesis solar splitting of water to
hydrogen and oxygen. Acc. Chem. Res., 28:141–145, 1995.
[7] J. K. Beatty, C. C. Peterson, and A. Chaokin. The Solar System. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1999.
[8] H. A. Bethe. Energy Production in Stars. Physical Review, 55:434–456, 1939.
[9] H. A. Bethe and C. L. Critchfield. The Formation of Deuterions by Proton Com-
bination. Physical Review, 54:248–254, 1938.
[10] S. Blanco. Solar parking lot with electric car charging stations opens in Tennessee.
AutoblogGreen, Aug 23, 2011.
[11] R. E. Blankenship. Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Science,
Oxford, UK, 2002.
[12] J. B. Bolton and D. O. Hall. Photochemical conversion and storage of solar energy.
Ann. Rev. Energy, 4:353–401, 1979.
[13] M. Born and E. Wolf. Principles of Optics. Seventh Edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1999.
[14] G. Boyle. Renewable Energy. Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
UK, 2004.
[15] C. J. Brabec, N. S. Sariciftci, and J. C. Hummelen. Plastic solar cells. Advanced
Functional Materials, 11:15–26, 2001.
[16] J. Britt and O. Ferekides. Thin-film CdS/CdTe solar cell with 15.8% efficiency.
Applied Physics Letters, 62:2851–2852, 1993.
315
Physics of Solar Energy C. Julian Chen
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 316 — #343
i
i
i
i
i
i
316 Bibliography
[17] K. Butti and J. Perlin. A Golden Thread. Marion Boyers, London Boston, 1980.
[18] C. J. Chen. Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, UK, 2007.
[19] K. L. Chopra, P. D. Paulson, and V. Dutta. Thin-film solar cells: an overview.
Progress in Photovoltaics, 12:69–92, 2004.
[20] C. Darwin. On the Origin of Spicies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1859.
[21] K. S. Deffeyes. Beyond Oil. Hill and Wang, New York, 2005.
[22] P. A. M. Dirac. The Quantum Theory of the Emission and Absorption of Radia-
tion. Proc. R. Soc. London, A114:243–265, 1927.
[23] A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman. Solar Energy Thermal Processes. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1974.
[24] A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes.Third
edition, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2006.
[25] US DoE EERE. National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap. US Department of
Energy, 2010.
[26] A. Einstein. Ist die Tr¨agheit eines K¨orpers von seinem Energieinhalt abh¨angig?
Annalen der Physik, 18:639–641, 1905.
[27] A. Einstein.
¨
Uber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandung des Lichts betreffenden
heuristischen Gesichtspunkt. Annalen der Physik, 17:132–148, 1905.
[28] M. M. Farid, A. M. Khudhair, and S. A. K. Razack S. Al-Hallaj.
[29] E. Fermi. Nuclear Physics. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1950.
[30] K. Garber. Steven Chu, Obama’s Point Man on Energy, Says Conservation Is
’Sexy’. U.S. News and World Report, March 2009, 2009.
[31] H. P. Garg, S. C. Mullik, and A. K. Bhargava. Solar Thermal Energy Storage.D.
Reider Publishing Company, Dordricht, 1985.
[32] M. Gr¨atzel. Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature, 414:338–344, 2001.
[33] M. Gr¨atzel. Dye-sensitized solar cells. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology
C: Photochemistry Reviews, 4:145–153, 2003.
[34] M. A. Green. Solar cells. Prentice-Hal, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
[35] M. A. Green. Limits on the open-circuit voltage and efficiency of silicon solar cells
imposed by intrinsic auger processes. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,
31:671–678, 1996.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 317 — #344
i
i
i
i
i
i
Bibliography 317
[36] M. A. Green, J. Zhao, A. Wang, and S. R. Wenham. Progress and outlook for
high-efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells, 65:9–16, 2001.
[37] W. Heitler. The Quantum Theory of Radiation. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954.
[38] P. Heremans, D. Cheyns, and B. P. Rand. Strategies for increasing the efficieny
of heterojunction organic photovoltaic cells: Material selection and device archi-
tecture. Accounts of Chemical research, 42:1740–1747, 2009.
[39] H. C. Hottel and A. Whillier. Evaluation of flat-plate solar collector performance.
Transcaction of Conference on the Use of Solar Energy, II:74–104, 1958.
[40] M. K. Hubbert. Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels. Shell Development Company
Publications, 95:1–40, 1956.
[41] C. E. Kennedy. Reiew of mid- to high-temperature absorber materials. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory report, 520:31267, 2002.
[42] C. E. Kennedy and H. Price. Progress in development of high-temperature solar-
selective coating. Proceedings of ISEC 2005, 520:36997, 2005.
[43] R. R. King, D. C. Law, K. M. Edmondson, C. M. Fetzer, G. S. Kinsey, H. Yoon,
R. A. Sherif, and N. H. Karam. 40% efficient metamorphic GaInP/GaInAs/Ge
multijunction solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett., 90:183516, 2007.
[44] S. A. Klein. Calculation of flat-plate collector loss coefficients. Solar Energy,
17:79–80, 1975.
[45] S. A. Klein. Why wind power works for Denmark. Proc. ICE Civil Engineering.,
2005.
[46] S. A. Klein, W. A. Beckman, and A. Duffie. A design procedure for solar heating
systems. Solar Energy, 18:113–127, 1975.
[47] M. M. Koltun. Selective optical surfaces for solar energy converters. Allerton
Press, Inc. New York, 1981.
[48] Sandia National Laboratory. Sandia, Stirling Energy Systems set new world record
for solar-to-grid conversion efficiency. News Release, February 12, 2008.
[49] A. D. Leite. Energy in Brazil. Earthscan, London, 2009.
[50] P. Lenard.
¨
Uber die lichtelektrische Wirkung. Annalen der Physik, 8:149–170,
1902.
[51] D. Linden and T. B. Reddy. Handbook of Batteries. Third Edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2002.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 318 — #345
i
i
i
i
i
i
318 Bibliography
[52] B. Y. H. Liu and R. C. Jordan. The interrelationship and characteristic distribution
of direct, diffuse, and total solar radiation. Solar Energy, 4(3):1–19, 1960.
[53] J. Lund, B. Sanner, L. Rybach, R. Curtis, and G. Hellstrom. Geothermal (ground-
source) heat pumps: a world overview. GHC Bullitin, September:31267, 2004.
[54] P. J. Lunde. Solar Thermal Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980.
[55] C. Lyell. Elements of Geology. C. H. Key & Co., Pittzburgh, 1839.
[56] D. J. C. MacKay. Sustainable Energy – Without Hot Air. UIT, Cambridge, Eng-
land, 2008.
[57] H. A. Macleod. Thin Film Optical Filters. American Elsevier Publishing Company,
Inc., New York, 2005.
[58] J. C. Maxwell. A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Reprinted by
Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1996, 1864.
[59] McKinsey&Company. China’s Green Revolution. McKinsey Global Energy and
Materials, July 2009:1–136.
[60] McKinsey&Company. Unlocking Energy Efficiency in the U.S. Economy. McKin-
sey Global Energy and Materials, July 2009:1–144.
[61] R. A. Millikan. A Direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck’s h. Physical
Review, 7:355–388, 1916.
[62] R. A. Millikan and I. B. Cohen. Autobiography of Robert A. Millikan. Arno Press,
New York, 1980.
[63] D. Moch´e. Astronomy. 7th Ed, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, 2009.
[64] B. O’Regan and M. Gr¨atzel. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-
sensitized colloidal TiO
2
films. Nature, 353:737–740, 1991.
[65] J. I. Pankove. Optical processes in semiconductors. Cover Publications, Inc. New
York, 1971.
[66] J. P. Peixoto and A. H. Oort. Physics of Climate. Third Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1992.
[67] J. Perlin. From Space to Earth. Aatec Publications, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1999.
[68] J. H. Phillips. Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,
1992.
[69] M. Powalla and D. Bonnet. Thin-film solar cells based on polycrystalline compound
semiconductors CIS and CdTe. Advances in Optoelectronics, 2007:97545, 2007.
i
i
“ChenSolarEnergy” — 2011/5/17 — 17:56 — page 319 — #346
i
i
i
i
i
i
Bibliography 319
[70] Jr. R. W. Bliss. The derivations of several plate efficiency factors in the design of
flat-plate solar collectors. Solar Energy, 3:55–64, 1959.
[71] J. Risen. U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan. New York Times,
June 13, 2010.
[72] H. H. Rogner. World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustain-
ability. United Nations Development Programme, 2000.
[73] M. Romero, R. Buck, and J. E. Pacheco. Water-in-glass evacualte tube solar water
heaters. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 124:98–108, 2002.
[74] J. J. Romm. The Hype about Hydrogen: Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the
Climate. Island Press, New York, 2005.
[75] H. J. Sauer and R. H. Howell. Heat Pump Systems. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1983.
[76] J. L. Shay and S. Wagner. Efficient CuInSe
2
/CdS solar cells. App. Phys. Lett.,
27:89–90, 2007.
[77] W. Shockley and H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction
solar cells. Journal of Applied Physics, 32:510–519, 1961.
[78] B. J. Stanbery. Copper indium selenides and related materials for photovoltaic
devices. Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences, 27:73–117, 2002.
[79] M. Stix. The Sun, an Introduction. Second Edition, Springer, New York, 2002.
[80] C. W. Tang. Two-layer organic photovoltaic cell. Appl. Phys. Lett., 48:183–185,
2004.
[81] W. Thompson. On the Age of Sun’s Heat. Macmillan’s Magazine, 5:388–393, 1862.
[82] W. Thompson. Nineteenth Century Clouds over the Dynamical Theory of Heat
and Light. Royal Institution Proceedings, 16:363–397, 1900.
[83] T. Tiedje, E. Yablonovitch, G. D. Cody, and B. G. Brooks. Limiting efficiency of
silicon solar cells. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 31:711–716, 1996.
[84] D. Ugolini, J. Zachary, and J. Park. Options for hybrid solar and conventional
fossil plants. Bechtel Technology Journal, 2:1–11, 2009.
[85] P.-F. Verhulst. Notice sur la loi que la population poursuit dans son accroissement.
Correspondance mathematique et physique, 10:113–121, 1838.
[86] D. Voet and J. D. Voet. Biochemistry. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.
[87] S. Wagner, L. J. Shay, P. Migliorato, and H. M. Kasper. CuImSe
2
/CdS hetero-
junction photovoltaic detectors. Applied Physics Letters, 25:434–435, 1974.