Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

U.S. Department of Energy

For most of its history, the United States has felt little

concern for its energy needs. The country has had huge

reserves of

coal

petroleum

, and

natural gas

. In addition,

the United States had always been able to buy all the addi-

tional

fossil fuels

it needed from other nations. As late as

1970, automotive and home heating fuels sold for about

$0.20–$0.30 per gal ($0.05–$0.08 per l).

That situation changed dramatically in 1973 when

members of the

Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries

(OPEC) placed an embargo on the oil it shipped

to nations around the world, including the United States.

It took only a few months for the United States and other

oil-dependent countries to realize that it was time to rethink

their national energy strategies. The late 1970s saw, there-

fore, a flurry of activity by both the legislative and executive

arms of government to formulate a new

energy policy

for

the United States.

Out of that upheaval came a number of new laws and

executive orders including the

Energy Reorganization Act

of 1973, the Federal Non-Nuclear Energy Research and

Development Act of 1974, the Energy Policy and

Conserva-

tion

Act of 1976, the

Energy Conservation

and Production

Act of 1976, the National Energy Act of 1978, and President

Jimmy Carter’s National Energy Plan of 1977.

One of the major features of both legislative and execu-

tive actions was the creation of a new Department of Energy

(DOE). DOE was established to provide a central authority

to develop and oversee national energy policy and research

and development of energy technologies. The new depart-

ment replaced or absorbed a number of other agencies pre-

viously responsible for one or another aspect of energy policy,

including primarily the Federal Energy Administrations and

the

Energy Research and Development Administration

Other agencies transferred to DOE included the

Federal

Power Commission

, the five power administrations respon-

sible for production, marketing and transmission of electrical

power (Bonnevile, Southeastern, Alaska, Southwestern, and

Western Area Power Administrations), and agencies with

a variety of other functions previously housed in the Depart-

ments of the Interior, Commerce, Housing and Urban De-

velopment, and the Navy.

DOE’s mission is to provide a framework for a com-

prehensive and balanced national energy plan by coordinat-

ing and administering a variety of Federal energy functions.

Among the Department’s specific responsibilities are re-

search and development of long-term, high-risk energy tech-

nologies, the marketing of power produced at Federal facili-

ties, promotion of energy conservation, administration of

energy regulatory programs, and collection and analysis of

data on energy production and use. In addition, the depart-

1447

ment has primary responsibility for the nation’s

nuclear

weapons

program.

DOE is divided into a number of offices, agencies,

and other divisions with specific tasks. For example, the

Office of Energy Research manages the Department’s pro-

grams in basic energy sciences, high energy physics, and

nuclear fusion

energy research. It also funds university re-

search in mathematical and computational sciences and other

energy-related research. Another division, the Energy Infor-

mation Administration, is responsible for collecting, pro-

cessing, and publishing data on energy reserves, production,

demand, consumption, distribution, and technology.

[David E. Newton]

ESOURCES

THER

The United States Government Manual, 1992/93. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1992.

RGANIZATIONS

U.S. Department of Energy, 1000 Independence Ave., SW, Washington,

D.C. USA 20585 Fax: (202) 586-4403, Toll Free: (800) dial-DOE, ,

<http://www.energy.gov>

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

(HHS) is responsible for the welfare, safety, and health

of United States citizens. Among other programs, HHS

administers drug safety standards, prevents epidemics, and

offers assistance to those who are economically disadvan-

taged.

The

Public Health Service

, a division of HHS, helps

state and city governments with health problems. The service

studies ways of controlling infectious diseases, works to im-

munize children, and operates quarantine programs. The

agency also operates the Centers for Disease Control (CDC),

where most of the nation’s health problems are studied.

These include occupational health and safety, the dangers

of cigarette smoking, and childhood injuries, as well as

com-

municable diseases

and the epidemic of urban violence.

In addition to investigating these problems, the CDC is

charged with making policy suggestions on their manage-

ment. HHS also administers the Social Security and Medi-

care programs, as well as the Head Start Program.

New lead-content standards for paint and other con-

sumer items grew out of CDC studies. The agency conducts

energy related epidemiological research for the

U.S. Depart-

ment of Energy

, including studies on

radiation exposure

Through the CDC, the HHS runs the National Center for

Health

Statistics

,an

AIDS

Hotline, an international disaster

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

U.S. Department of the Interior

relief team, and programs to monitor influenza epidemics

worldwide.

The

Food and Drug Administration

is another

agency of HHS. It is charged with responding to new drug

research by drug development companies and approving new

drugs for use in the United States. Along with the

U.S.

Department of Agriculture

, the FDA is responsible for

maintaining the safety of the nation’s food and drug supply.

HHS also administers the

Agency for Toxic Substances

and Disease Registry

, which carries out the health-related

responsibilities of the Superfund legislation.

[Linda Rehkopf]

ESOURCES

THER

The United States Government Manual, 1992/93. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1992.

RGANIZATIONS

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 200 Independence

Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. USA 20201 (202) 619-0257, Toll Free:

(877) 696-6775, Email: HHS.Mail@hhs.gov, <http://www.hhs.gov>

U.S. Department of State

see

Bureau of Oceans and International

Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES)

U.S. Department of the Interior

The U.S. Department of the Interior was founded by an

Act of Congress on March 3, 1849. A wide variety of func-

tions were assigned to the “Home Department” as it was

called at the time, including administration of the General

Land Office which passed large tracts of western lands to

homesteaders (294 million acres/119 million ha), to railroads

(94 million acres/38 million ha), and to colleges and universi-

ties. In the twentieth-first century, the Department of the

Interior has become the custodian of public lands and

natu-

ral resources

, and is now America’s primary governmental

conservation

agency. The

National Park Service

Bureau

of Land Management

Bureau of Reclamation

Fish and

Wildlife Service

Geological Survey

Office of Surface

Mining

Reclamation

and Enforcement, and Bureau of

Mines are part of the Department. In addition the Depart-

ment is responsible for American Indian reservation commu-

nities and for people living in island territories administered

by the United States.

The Department’s mandate is very broad, including

such duties as: 1) administration of over 507 million acres

(205 million ha) of federal public lands; 2) development and

conservation of mineral and

water resources

; 3) conserva-

1448

tion and utilization of fish and

wildlife

resources; 4) coordi-

nation of federal and state

recreation

programs; 5) adminis-

tration and preservation of America’s scenic and historic

areas; 6) reclamation of western

arid

lands through

irriga-

tion

; and 7) management of hydroelectric power systems.

Although many Department activities and programs

have generated environmental controversy over the years, it

is probably these last two activities that have been most

contentious. In pursuit of these mandates, the Bureau of

Reclamation, working with the

Army Corps of Engineers

has constructed massive

dams

on rivers in the West. These

dams are designed to provide water storage and electricity

for western cities and farms, as well as to reduce down-

steam

flooding

. However, these dams also have had severe

impacts on ecosystems, significantly altering and, at times,

devastating riverine habitats.

On balance, however, the programs and practices of

the Department of the Interior probably do more environ-

mental good than harm. Among the Department’s positive

actions and accomplishments during the past several years

are: 1) establishment of 23 new refuges and waterfowl pro-

duction areas in Florida and in Louisiana; 2) initiation of

“Refuges 2003,” a Fish and Wildlife Service effort aimed at

planning management programs and policies for the next

10–15 years on the nation’s 472 national wildlife refuges; 3)

implementation of the North American

Wetlands

Conser-

vation Act to restore declining waterfowl populations and

to conserve wetlands; 4) protection of 1,800

species

on the

List of Endangered and Threatened Species; 5) development

and beginning implementation of a mitigation and enhance-

ment plan to restore California’s Kesterson

Reservoir

, which

was closed due to high concentrations of selenium; 6) tripling

the Coastal Barrier Resources System to 1.25 million acres

(500,000 ha) over 1,200 mi (1,931 km) of shoreline including

the Florida Keys,

Great Lakes

, Puerto Rico and the Virgin

Islands; 7) Establishment of a new Office of

Surface Mining

Reclamation and Enforcement office in Ashland, Kentucky,

for rapid response to abandoned mine land problems in need

of reclamation on an emergency basis; 8) participation in

filing 120 natural resource damage assessments in the period

1988–1991, the largest being the assessment of the

Exxon

Valdez

accident in

Prince William Sound

, Alaska. The

$1.1 billion settlement of this accident enabled the Federal

Government to proceed with cleanup and restoration efforts.

[Malcolm T. Hepworth]

ESOURCES

THER

The United States Government Manual, 1992/93. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1992.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Used oil recycling

RGANIZATIONS

U.S. Department of the Interior, 1849 C. Street NW, Washington, D.C.

USA 20240 (202) 208-3100, <http://www.doi.gov>

U.S. Public Interest Research Group

Formally founded in 1983 by consumer advocate

Ralph

Nader

, the Public Interest Research Group (PIRG) is an

outgrowth of Nader’s Center for the Study of Responsive

Law. PIRG aims to heighten consumer awareness and fo-

cuses on such environmental issues as clean air, toxic waste

cleanup, protection of the

atmosphere

pesticide

control,

and solid

waste reduction

. While PIRG did not convene

as a national organization until 1983, its roots date back to

1970, when Nader began to establish state PIRGs through-

out the United States. The national umbrella organization

was founded to lobby for the state units.

PIRG has been vital in bringing about several impor-

tant environmental regulations. In 1986, the organization

led an aggressive campaign that resulted in the strengthening

of the federal Superfund program, a $9-billion venture that

identifies and provides for the cleanup of sites contaminated

hazardous waste

. That same year, PIRG was successful

in influencing the United States legislature to pass the

Safe

Drinking Water Act

(SDWA). The SDWA imposes limits

and prohibitions on the amounts and types of

chemicals

allowable in drinking water supplies and provides for regular

testing to assure that the limits imposed by the SDWA

are being met. In 1987, PIRG proved instrumental in the

strengthening of the

Clean Water Act

which requires

cleanup of United States waterways. The CWA also imposes

limits and prohibitions on chemicals which are discharged

into the water system. Several state PIRGs have also met

with success when suing major polluters. As the result of

PIRG legal action, many polluters have been ordered to pay

fines and clean up contaminated areas.

PIRG also educates the general public on various is-

sues. Its current projects are outlined in a quarterly newslet-

ter, Citizen Agenda, and some of its key concerns are detailed

in such reports as Toxic Truth and Consequences: The Magni-

tude of and the Problems Resulting from America’s Use of Toxic

Chemicals; Presumed Innocent: A Report on 69 Cancer-Causing

Chemicals Allowed in Our Food; and As the World Burns:

Documenting America’s Failure to Address the Ozone Crisis.

Ongoing PIRG projects address similar issues. Al-

though successful with the Superfund program, the organi-

zation continues to work for the cleanup of toxic waste and

actively supports the notion that “polluters pay"—requiring

those who cause contamination to fund the subsequent

cleanup. PIRG also conducts research into

energy effi-

ciency

in an effort to curb

carbon monoxide

emissions.

Through its lobbying efforts, the group also supports legisla-

1449

tion requiring a ban on carcinogenic pesticides in food, pre-

venting

groundwater

contamination, halting

garbage in-

cineration

, and initiating bottle-recycling programs in all

50 states. The organization is also involved in a Clean Water

Campaign, seeking to further strengthen state and federal

water regulations.

PIRG achieves these goals through a balance of profes-

sional and volunteer action. PIRG volunteers are utilized in

fundraising efforts, letter-writing campaigns, and election

drives. Members were once asked to send

aluminum

cans

to Congress to show support of PIRG’s bottle-recycling

campaign.

[Kristin Palm]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

U.S. Public Interest Research Group, 215 Pennsylvania Avenue,

Washington, D.C. USA 20003, E-mail: webmaster@pirg.org, <http://

pirg.org>

Used oil recycling

Used oil recycling is a procedure that involves reprocessing

used motor oil so that it can be used again. Motor oil can

be recycled indefinitely because the lubricant does not wear

out. Recycled oil is cleaned of contaminants such as dirt,

water, used additives, and fuel. Used oil may also contain

toxic substances such as

lead

benzene

, zinc, and

cadmium

Recycling

saves oil and helps the

environment

. Ac-

cording to the United States

Environmental Protection

Agency

(EPA), 2.5 qt (2.4 l) of rerefined oil can be processed

from 1 gal (3.8 l) of used oil. If not recycled, the gallon of

lubricant from an oil change can ruin 1 million gal (3.8

million l) of fresh water, representing the annual water supply

for 50 people. One pint (0.5 l) of used oil can create an

approximately 1 acre (0.4 ha) oil slick on the surface of water,

according to the California Integrated

Waste Management

Board. Crankcase oil accounts for more than 40% of the

total oil

pollution

in harbors and waterways in the United

States.

There are several markets for recycled oil. According

to the American Petroleum Institute (API), a trade organiza-

tion that joins with government agencies to promote the

recycling of used motor oil from cars, trucks, motorcycles,

boats, recreational vehicles, and lawn mowers, 75% of recy-

cled oil is processed for use in industry, and 11% is used in

space heaters in automotive bays and municipal garages. The

remaining 14% is rerefined, returned to its virgin state, and

again used as motor oil. The API reported that more than

640 million gal (2,422 million l) of motor oil were sold in

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Utilitarianism

1997. People who changed their own oil bought 345 million

gal (1,306 million l).

The API’s Recycled Oil Web site includes instructions

about collecting oil and where to take it for recycling. Oil

should be drained from the car engine when it is warm (so

that

sludge

flows out smoothly) into a pan that holds twice

as much the crankcase. The drained oil should be poured

through a funnel into a clean plastic bottle that has a tightly

closing lid; the API recommends using a milk jug and cau-

tions against using bottles that held bleach, cleaners, or

automotive fluids such as anti-freeze (residue in those con-

tainers will contaminate the oil). The used oil should then

be taken to a collection station. The API Web site has links

to recycling information in every state and some Canadian

provinces. Recycling services are provided by states, cities,

and private companies. In addition, oil may be accepted at

some service stations and oil change shops.

The next step in the recycling process is the collection

of used oil by transporters who vacuum oil from service bays

and collection center storage containers. The collected oil

is tested for hazardous components. Oil that passes the test

is mixed into a holding tank and taken by tanker truck to

a recycler or a

transfer station

. At the transfer station, oil

is held until it is taken to processors, rerefiners, or burners

for heating.

Processors treat about 750 million gal (2,839 million

l) of used oil each year, according to the API. About 43%

of reprocessed oil is used by asphalt plants, 14% by industrial

boilers at factories, 12% by utility boilers at electric

power

plants

, 12% by steel mills, 5% by cement and lime kilns,

5% by marine boilers, 4% by

pulp and paper mills

, and

less than 1% by commercial boilers that generate heat for

offices, schools, and other facilities. The remaining 5% is

marketed for other uses.

Rerefined oil is produced by a process that involves

cleaning the lubricant of contaminants. After vacuum dis-

tillation, oil is hydrotreated to eliminate any remaining

chemicals

, then combined with additives to make virgin

oil. Consumers who purchase rerefined oil should check the

product for the API certification mark.

Used oil designated for specially designed space heaters

helps to reduce heating costs at service bays and garages (it

is not recommended for home use). In the United States,

75,000 space heaters are fueled by approximately 113 million

gal (428 million l) of used oil each year.

Statewide recycling programs include Alabama’s Proj-

ect R.O.S.E. (Recycled Oil Saves Energy). It started in

1977 and is one of the nation’s oldest programs. Project

accomplishments include the collection of 9 million gal (34

million l) of used oil in 1993. In 1995 California’s program

was expanded to include an oil filter recycling program.

More than 20 million

filters

are recycled annually in the

1450

state; recycling 1 ton (907 kg) of used filters yields 1,700 lb

(771 kg) of steel and up to 60 gal (227 l) of oil.

[Liz Swain]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, NW, Washington, DC USA

20005-4070 (202) 682-8000, <http://www.api.org>

USLE

see

Erosion

Utilitarianism

According to the ethical theory of utilitarianism, an action

is right if it promises to produce better results than—or

maximize the expected utility of—other action possible in

the circumstances. Although there are earlier examples of

utilitarian reasoning, the English philosopher Jeremy Ben-

tham (1748–1832) gave utilitarianism its first full formula-

tion. “Nature has placed mankind under two sovereign mas-

ters,” Bentham declared, “pain and pleasure. It is for them

alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to deter-

mine what we shall do.” The ethical person, then, will act

to increase the amount of pleasure (or utility) in the world

and decrease the amount of pain by following a single princi-

ple: promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

As later utilitarians discovered, this principle is not as

straightforward as it seems. The very notion of happiness is

problematical. Are all pleasures intrinsically equal, as Ben-

tham suggested? Or are some inherently better or “higher”

than others, as John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), the English

philosopher and political economist, insisted? A related

problem is the difficulty—some say the impossibility—of

making interpersonal comparisons of utility. If people want

to promote the greatest happiness (or good or utility) of the

greatest number, they need a way to measure utility. But

there is no ruler that can assess the utility of various actions

in the way that weight, height, or distance are quantified.

Another problem is the ambiguity of “the greatest

happiness of the greatest number.” Stressing “the greatest

number” implies that the utilitarian should bow to the major-

ity. But “the greatest happiness” may mean that the intense

preferences of the minority may override an equivocal major-

ity. Utilitarians have typically taken the second tack by re-

formulating the principle as “maximize aggregate utility.”

Either interpretation seems to call for an ever-increas-

ing population. The more people there are, the more happi-

ness there will be. This has led some utilitarians to argue

that people should try to promote average rather than total

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Utilitarianism

utility. Since the average amount of happiness could decline

in an overcrowded world even as the total amount increased,

the “average utilitarian” could consistently argue for popula-

tion control.

Finally, who counts when happiness or utility is calcu-

lated? Everyone counts equally, Bentham said, but does “ev-

eryone” include only those people living in this place at this

time? The expansive view is that “everyone” embraces all

those who may be affected by one’s actions, even people

who may not yet be born. If so, should today’s people count

the preferences of

future generations

equally with those

presently living? For that matter, should they restrict their

concern to people? According to Bentham, the test of inclu-

sion should not be: “Can they reason? nor Can they talk?

but, Can they suffer?” This emphasis on sentience has led

1451

some contemporary utilitarians to advocate “animal libera-

tion,” including

vegetarianism

, as part of a consistent at-

tempt to promote utility. See also Animal rights; Environ-

mental ethics; Intergenerational justice

[Richard K. Dagger]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Bentham, J. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. New

York: Hafner, 1948 (originally published 1789).

Mill, J. S. “Utilitarianism.” In Utilitarianism, Liberty, Representative Govern-

ment. New York: Dutton, 1951.

Smart, J. J. C., and B. Williams. Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1973.

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Vadose zone

The unsaturated zone between the land surface and the

water table

. The vadose zone (from the Latin vadosus,

meaning shallow) includes the soil-water zone, intermediate

vadose zone, and capillary fringe. The pore space contains

air, water, and other fluids under pressure, which is less than

atmospheric pressure. Thus, the water is held to the

soil

particles by forces that are greater than the force of gravity.

Saturated zones, such as perched

groundwater

aquifers,

may exist in the vadose zone and water pressure within these

zones is greater than atmospheric pressure. See also Recharge

zone; Zone of saturation

Valdez Principles

In March of 1989, the

Exxon Valdez

ran aground in

Prince

William Sound

in Alaska, spilling 11 million gal (41 million

L) of crude oil. During the international outcry over the

environmental consequences of the spill, environmentalists

criticized a number of the structural features of the

petro-

leum

industry and the operational practices of the super-

tanker transport of oil.

In this climate, new approaches were suggested to

motivate not only oil companies but all industries to

support the protection of the

environment

. The Valdez

Principles are perhaps the most important of the approaches

suggested during this period. They were developed by

the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economics

(CERES), which was a consortium of 14 environmental

groups and the Social Investment Forum, an organization

of 325 socially concerned bankers, investors, and brokers.

CERES was founded by Boston money manager Joan

Bavaria, and it has the support of several major environ-

mental groups, including the

Sierra Club

and the

National

Wildlife Federation

The Valdez Principles were modelled on the Sullivan

Principles, which had been developed to discourage invest-

1453

ment in South Africa as a protest against apartheid.

Members of CERES controlled $150 billion in both

pension and mutual funds. The goal of the Valdez Princi-

ples was to reward the behavior that was environmentally

sound and punish behavior that was not by investing

or withholding funds controlled by CERES members.

Corporations were also asked to sign the Valdez Principles

in the hopes that the financial incentives provided by

CERES would encourage companies to develop environ-

mentally sound practices.

The Valdez Principles support a wide range of environ-

mental issues. Protection of the

biosphere

is one of its

objectives, and it encourages industries to minimize or elimi-

nate the

emission

of pollutants. The principles are also

devoted to protecting

biodiversity

and insuring the

sus-

tainable development

of land, water, forests, and other

natural resources

. The principles advocate the use of

re-

cycling

whenever possible, support safe disposal methods,

and encourage the use of safe and sustainable energy sources.

Energy efficiency

is also a goal, as well as the marketing

of products that have minimal environmental impact. The

principles also call for corporations to have at least one board

member qualified to represent environmental interests and a

senior executive responsible for environmental affairs. Other

goals include damage compensation, disclosure of accidents

and hazards, and the creation of independent environmental

audit procedures. Many major corporations have indicated

an interest in these principles, but few have signed them.

Some executives have observed that many aspects of the

Valdez Principles are already required by government regula-

tions and internal policies.

Perhaps then the most significant feature of the

Valdez Principles is not what they have accomplished but

the circumstances of their origin. A major disaster often

engenders a social and political climate that is, at least

temporarily, receptive to reform. In this case it was a rare

coalition between financial investors and environmental

groups. Many have argued that the principles had unrealis-

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Vapor recovery system

tic goals, but some see in their development hope for the

future.

[Usha Vedagiri and Douglas Smith]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

Ohnuma, K. “Missed Manners.” Sierra 75 (March-April 1990): 24–26.

“The Valdez Principles.” Audubon 91 (November 1989): 6.

Vapor recovery system

At one time, vapors that are potentially harmful to the

envi-

ronment

or to human health were simply allowed to escape

into the

atmosphere

. Each time an

automobile

consumer

filled the gas tank, for example,

gasoline

vapors escaped

into the air. As the hazards of these emissions became more

evident, the use of closed systems of pipes, valves, compres-

sors, and other components became more prevalent. In most

systems, those vapors are compressed to a liquid and returned

to their original source. Vapor recovery systems not only

protect the environment, but conserve resources that might

otherwise be wasted.

Vascular plant

A plant that possesses specialized conducting tissue (xylem

and phloem) for the purpose of transporting water and sol-

utes within the root-stem-leaf system. Although aquatic

forms exist, most vascular plants are terrestrial and include

herbs, shrubs and trees. The development of vascular trans-

port allowed plants to become larger, leading to their even-

tual domination of terrestrial ecosystems. The uptake and

translocation of soluble pollutants from the

soil

into the

plant occurs through the roots and the conducting tissue.

Adverse effects of such

pollution

on vascular plants include

stunted growth and death of all or part of the plant.

Vector (Mosquito) Control

The largest group of animals on the face of the planet, the

arthropods (meaning “jointed feet"), includes a very highly

successful class of organisms, Insecta, the insects. It is esti-

mated that insect

species

outnumber all other known species

of animals and plants on earth combined. One kind of insect,

the mosquito, a two-winged insect of the family Culicidae,

has particular importance with respect to the activities of

humankind. Mosquitoes are a type of fly that have adaptive

traits that make them very successful, and very devastating

pests. Most importantly, female mosquitoes of key species

1454

must consume blood from vertebrates to provide nourish-

ment for egg production. Female mosquitoes will ingest

blood-meals from amphibians, birds, or mammals. In the

process of consuming blood to provide the protein necessary

for egg development, the mosquito becomes an important,

and dangerous, transmitter of disease. When an organism

is capable of transmitting a disease, it is said to be a vector

of that disease. Mosquitoes are perhaps the most important

arthropod vectors of human disease in the world.

Mosquitoes of various species can transmit viral, proto-

zoan, or bacterial organisms that cause disease in human

beings. Viruses (complex constructions of protein and DNA

or RNA) are, by definition, dependent upon living cells for

replication and transmission. Some protozoans, single celled

organisms possessing nuclei, have become dependent upon

other organisms for their survival. Likewise, some bacteria,

single-celled organisms without nuclei, cannot survive out-

side of a particular host organism. Mosquitoes act as vectors,

or vehicles for such disease-causing organisms to jump from

host to host to complete life-cycles in order to continue

survival.

Mosquito vectors transmit viral strains and protozoal

parasites

that cause immense human suffering worldwide.

Globally relevant viral diseases transmitted by mosquito vec-

tors include Dengue fever and Yellow fever. Recently, in the

United States, West Nile

virus

, Eastern Equine Encephalitis

(EEE), La Crosse Encephalitis, and St. Louis Encephalitis

are important arthropod-borne viruses, or “arboviruses.” The

largest impact that mosquito vector species have on humans

is in the transmission of

malaria

, a disease caused by proto-

zoan infection of red blood cells that results in massive,

cyclic bouts of very high fever and in many cases, death.

Vector control, or the management of disease-spreading spe-

cies of mosquitoes, is a large concern among global commu-

nities. Once thought to be a historic problem, renewed inter-

est has emerged concerning vector-borne disease as a

potential threat to contemporary and future civilization.

Global mosquito control consumes tremendous finan-

cial resources and is costly in terms of time, effort, and

environmental impact. Different parts of the world attempt

vector control by various methods, but the most effective

way of controlling mosquitoes is a combination of scientific

knowledge and common sense.

Integrated pest manage-

ment

combines the use of biological or chemical products,

knowledge of the mosquito’s

habitat

, and information about

the mosquito’s life cycle to control the potentially dangerous

pests. Larviciding is a successful component of mosquito

control. Larviciding uses an insecticide to spray areas of

stagnant where mosquitoes lay their eggs and the larvae

grows. Adulticiding is ground spraying for adult mosquitoes

and is applied by spraying a fog of insecticide around the

premises where they live. Common sense methods of mos-

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Vector (Mosquito) Control

quito control are emptying dishes or birdbaths where water

collects, keeping grass mowed and bushes trimmed, and

filling in low-lying areas so that water is not left to stag-

nate there.

Even with global vector control, malaria is reemerging

in most countries where the disease is endemic. Malaria is

caused by any of four species of protozoan parasites. Plasmo-

dium falciuparum and Plasmodium vivax are the most deadly.

The parasite is transmitted by a particular genus of mosquito,

Anopheles. For many years, malaria was a problem in the

United States. In the 1940s, a massive malaria vector control

program was initiated that used immense quantities of the

potent

pesticide

, DDT, to kill the mosquitoes that transmit

malaria. DDT is an effective agent in the control of mosquito

vectors of disease, but two problems have plagued its use.

The first is its persistence in the

environment

and harmful

effect on fish and

wildlife

and its implication as a mamma-

lian

neurotoxin

that could potentially affect human beings.

The second concern is the emergence of DDT-resistant

strains of mosquitoes. Despite this, DDT is still used in

many underdeveloped areas of the world to control mosquito

infestations that pose a threat to human health and wellbe-

ing. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control

(CDC) monitors and surveys for malaria and other vector-

borne diseases that endanger the population. The CDC also

advises U.S. citizens on appropriate drug therapies to utilize

while visiting countries where disease-bearing vector species

of mosquitoes are prevalent. In the year 2000, 246 cases of

imported malaria were reported to the CDC.

One effort to control vector spread of malaria has been

the Roll Back Malaria initiative which seeks to reduce the

world’s malaria burden by one half by the year 2010. One

aspect has been the distribution of insecticide-treated mos-

quito nets in areas where malaria vectors are especially prob-

lematic for pregnant women and children, such as the coun-

try Nairobi. As part of the effort, 60,000 insecticide-treated

mosquito nets were distributed in 2002 in cooperation with

the United Nations Children’s Fund. This form of vector

control incorporates physical barriers with chemical insecti-

cides and social education programs to effect change in the

prevalence of this devastating disease.

Mosquito control, however, involves many diseases

other than malaria, however. Dengue fever is a viral infection

transmitted by mosquito vectors that causes paroxysmal joint

and muscle pain, headache, vomiting, and rash. Commonly,

because of its symptoms, Dengue fever is confused with

malaria or typhoid fever, a bacterial infection. Dengue fever

is a potential threat in Africa, China, Southeast Asia, the

Middle East, Central and South America and the Caribbean.

A historically notorious arbovirus, Dengue fever is returning.

According to the CDC Division of Vector-Borne Infectious

Disease, 1997 was the year in which Dengue fever was

1455

the most important mosquito-borne viral disease affecting

humans. At that time, an estimated 2.5 billion people lived

in areas of risk, making Dengue fever a mosquito (vector)

control problem en par with malaria. Four major reasons

for the emergence of Dengue fever as an important mos-

quito-borne disease have been identified. First, sufficient

mosquito control efforts are practically absent in areas where

the risk of contracting Dengue fever is most acute. Second,

uncontrolled population expansion in such areas has led to

a deficit in effective sewer and

waste management

systems,

the result of which only contributes o the spread of vector-

borne disease. Demographic changes leading to inadequate

water management systems have exacerbated this problem.

Thirdly, accessible and rapid

transportation

via airplanes

had created a new, swift means for spread of the Dengue

vector mosquito. Stowaway infected mosquitoes spread dis-

ease to new areas with newfound speed. Finally, limited

financial resources have forced nations challenged by such

vector-borne disease to choose between effective vector con-

trol and other, greatly needed endeavors. Until and unless

Dengue and other vector-borne diseases are recognized as

threats, funding for vector control programs may remain

secondary to more pressing social dilemmas in undeveloped

nations. While no Dengue vaccine exists, vigorous research

employing

biotechnology

continues.

More recently, mosquito-borne illnesses have been

witnessed in North America. West Nile virus has surfaced

in America, formerly only attributed to central Asia, Europe,

Africa, and the Middle East. By 2001, the West Nile virus

had been documented by the CDC to be present in Alabama,

Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois,

Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,

Wisconsin, and other mid-Atlantic states. As of 2001, 149

cases of West Nile virus illnesses had been reported to the

CDC, which includes 18 deaths. The West Nile virus is

a variety of

pathogen

called a flavovirus that can cause

encephalitis, coma, and death.

Two additional arbovirus pathogens transmitted by

mosquito vectors in the United States are LaCrosse Enceph-

alitis and Eastern Equine Encephalitis. The LaCrosse virus

belongs top the Bunyviridae subgroup and has approximately

70 cases of infection in the United States annually. While

fatality rate of infection with LaCrosse is less than 1%,

hospitalization and neurological complications that occur

with infection are serious. Children under the age of 16

years are particularly at risk of contracting LaCrosse Enceph-

alitis in endemic areas. A similar vector-borne disease is

Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE). The manifestations of

EEE range from influenza-like symptoms to severe swelling

of central nervous tissue, coma, and death. The etiologic

agent for EEE is a family of mosquito-borne viruses called

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Vegan

the Togaviridae. Since 1964, there have been approximately

153 confirmed cases of EEE in the United States.

Vector mosquito control in the United States remains

a priority in many urban areas. Mosquito control is most

often accomplished by chemical insecticide spraying of select

areas where known vector breeding areas exist. This approach

is viewed by some experts to be reactive rather than proactive.

Still, potent chemical means of mosquito control remain the

most cost-effective alternative for vector disease transmission

in this country and abroad. However, much research is un-

derway to find alternative methods of controlling dangerous

mosquito populations. For example, now standard biotech-

nological techniques such as gene

cloning

and transposon

insertion are presenting new and exciting ways of genetically

altering mosquito vectors to become immune to the disease-

causing

microorganisms

, thus rendering them mere pests,

and not potential transmitters of life-threatening disease.

[Terry Watkins]

Vegan

The strictest type of vegetarians, refraining from eating not

only meat and fish, but also eggs, dairy products, and all

other food containing or derived from animals, often includ-

ing honey. A vegan diet contains no cholesterol and very

little fat, so it is quite healthy as long as sufficient nutrients

are obtained, especially vitamins B

and D, calcium, and

quality protein. Most vegans also avoid wearing or using

animal products of any kind, including fur, leather, and even

wool. Vegans are motivated primarily by a humane and

ethical concern for the welfare of animals and by a desire

to avoid unhealthy food products, as well as by the realization

that raising livestock and other food animals damage the

natural

environment

and contributes, through its waste-

fulness and lack of efficiency, to world hunger. See also Ani-

mal rights; Environmental ethics; Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism

Vegetarians refrain from consuming animals and animal

products, including meat, poultry, and fish. Lacto-ovo vege-

tarians will eat eggs, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products.

However, total vegetarians (vegans) avoid these animal prod-

ucts completely, including foods such as honey. On the

whole, vegetarians emphasize the impact of dietary choice

on health, on the fate of animals and the planet, and on

humanity, including

future generations

Vegetarians avoid meat for many reasons, including

concerns for animals, the

environment

, general health, and

worldwide food shortages. Some cultures and religions, such

1456

as Buddhism and Hinduism, also advocate vegetarianism.

Vegetarians emphasize that the overwhelming majority of

food animals are raised on “factory farms,” where they spend

their entire lives in cramped, overcrowded conditions, lack-

ing sunshine, exercise, and the ability to engage in natural

behavior.

A vegetarian diet can also be healthier than a meat-

centered one. Meat contains high amounts of saturated fat

and cholesterol, which—in excess amounts—contributes to

heart disease,

cancer

, and other degenerative diseases. While

poultry and fish are lower in fat and cholesterol than red

meat, they also carry health risks. Chicken is a major source

of salmonella contamination and other dangerous bacteria,

and fish (especially shellfish) are often heavily contaminated

with pesticides,

heavy metals

, and toxic

chemicals

Vegetarians often cite the massive environmental dam-

age caused by raising food animals. Consider the following

illustrations. Livestock occupy and graze on half of the

world’s land mass. Cattle alone use a quarter of the earth’s

land. This can result in

water pollution

, clearing of forests,

soil erosion

, and

desertification

. More food could be pro-

duced and more people could be fed if resources were not

used to produce meat. For example, the amount of land

required to feed one meat-eater could theoretically feed 15

to 20 vegetarians. One acre (0.4 ha) of agricultural land can

produce about 165 lb (75 kg) of beef or 20,000 lb (9,072

kg) of potato.

Moreover, the world’s cattle eat enough grain to feed

every human on earth, and most of that grain is wasted. A

cow must eat 16 lb (7.3 kg) of grain and soybeans to produce

1 lb (0.45 kg) of feedlot beef—a 94% waste of food. A pig

requires 7.5 lb (3.4 kg) of protein to produce 1 lb (0.45 kg)

of pork protein. Ninety-five percent of all grain grown in

the United States is used to feed livestock, as is 97% of all

legumes (beans, peas, and lentils), and 66% of the fish caught

in American waters. Over half of all the water used in the

United States goes for livestock production, and it takes

100–200 times more water to produce beef than wheat.

[Lewis G. Regenstein]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Amato, P. R., and S. A. Partridge. The New Vegetarians: Promoting Health

and Protecting Life. New York: Plenum, 1989.

Brown, E. H. With the Grain: The Essentially Vegetarian Way. New York:

Carroll and Graf, 1990.

Giehl, D. Vegetarianism: A Way of Life. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.

Mitra, A. Food for Thought: The Vegetarian Philosophy. Willow Springs,

MO: Nucleus, 1991.

Robbins, J. Diet for a New America. Walpole, NH: Stillpoint Publishing,

1987.