Environmental Encyclopedia

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Earth Charter

It is the objective of the Earth Charter to set forth an

inspiring vision of the fundamental principles of a global

partnership for

sustainable development

and environ-

mental

conservation

. The Earth Charter initiative reflects

the conviction that a radical change in humanity’s attitudes

and values is essential to achieve social, economic, and eco-

logical well-being in the twenty-first century. The Earth

Charter project is part of an international movement to

clarify humanity’s shared values and to develop a new global

ethics, ensuring effective human cooperation in an interde-

pendent world.

There were repeated efforts to draft the Earth Charter

beginning in 1987. Early in 1997 an Earth Charter Commis-

sion was formed by the Earth Council and

Green Cross

International. The Commission prepared an Earth Charter

which it was circulated as a people’s treaty beginning in

1998. The Charter was then submitted to the United Na-

tions General Assembly in the year 2000. On June 29, 2000,

the official Earth Charter was established at the Peace Palace

in The Hague, Holland.

Historical background, 1945–1992

The role and significance of the Earth Charter are

best understood in the context of the United Nations’ ongo-

ing efforts to identify the fundamental principles essential

to world security. When the U.N. was established in 1945,

its agenda for world security emphasized peace, human

rights, and equitable socioeconomic development. No men-

tion was made of the

environment

as a common concern,

and little attention was given to ecological well-being in the

U.N.’s early years. However, since the Stockholm Confer-

ence on the Human Environment in 1972, ecological secu-

rity has emerged as a fourth major concern of the United

Nations.

Starting with the Stockholm Declaration, the world’s

nations have adopted a number of declarations, charters, and

treaties that seek to create a global alliance that effectively

integrates and balances development and conservation. In

397

addition, a variety of nongovernmental organizations have

drafted and circulated their own declarations and people’s

treaties. These documents reflect a growing awareness that

humanity’s social, economic, and environmental problems

are interconnected and require integrated solutions. The

Earth Charter initiative builds on these efforts.

The World Charter for Nature, which was adopted

by the U.N. General Assembly in 1982, was a progressive

declaration of ecological and ethical principles for its time.

It remains a stronger document than any that have followed

from the point of view of

environmental ethics

. However,

in its 1987 report,

Our Common Future

, the U.N. World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)

issued a call for “a new charter” that would “consolidate and

extend relevant legal principles,” creating “new

norms...needed to maintain livelihoods and life on our shared

planet” and “to guide state behavior in the transition to

sustainable development.” The WCED also recommended

that the new charter “be subsequently expanded into a Con-

vention, setting out the sovereign rights and reciprocal re-

sponsibilities of all states on environmental protection and

sustainable development.”

The WCED recommendations, together with deep-

ening environmental and ethical concerns, spurred efforts

in the late 1980s to create an Earth Charter. However, before

any U.N. action was initiated on the Earth Charter, the

Commission on

Environmental Law

of the World Conser-

vation Union (IUCN) drafted the convention proposed in

Our Common Future. The IUCN Draft International Cove-

nant on Environment and Development presents an inte-

grated legal framework for existing and future international

and national environmental and sustainable development law

and policy. Even though the IUCN Draft Covenant was

presented at the United Nations in 1995 official negotiations

have not yet begun on this treaty which many environmental-

ists believe is urgently needed to clarify, synthesize, and

further develop international sustainable development law.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED), or Earth Summit held in Rio de

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Charter

Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 did take up the challenge of drafting

the Earth Charter. A number of governments prepared rec-

ommendations. Many nongovernmental organizations, in-

cluding groups representing the major faiths, became actively

involved. While the resulting Rio Declaration on Environ-

ment and Development is a valuable document, it falls short

of the aspirations that many groups have had for the Earth

Charter.

The Earth Charter Project, 1994–2000

A new Earth Charter initiative began in 1994 under

the leadership of Maurice Strong, the former secretary gen-

eral of UNCED and chairman of the newly formed Earth

Council, and Mikhail Gorbachev, acting in his capacity as

chairman of Green Cross International. The Earth Council

was created to complete the unfinished business of UNCED

and to promote implementation of Agenda 21, the Earth

Summit’s action plan. Jim MacNeill, former secretary gen-

eral of the WCED and Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers of

The Netherlands were instrumental in facilitating the orga-

nization of the new Earth Charter project. Ambassador Mo-

hamed Sahnoun of Algeria served as the executive director of

the project during its initial phase, and its first international

workshop was held at the Peace Palace in The Hague in

May 1995. Representatives from 30 countries and more

than 70 different organizations participated in the workshop.

Following this event, the secretariat for the Earth Charter

project was established at the Earth Council in San Jose

Costa Rica.

A worldwide Earth Charter consultation process was

organized by the Earth Council in connection with the Rio&

plus;5 review in 1996 and 1997. The Rio+5 review,

which culminated with a special session of the United Na-

tions General Assembly in June 1997, sought to assess pro-

gress toward sustainable development since the Rio Earth

Summit and to develop new partnerships and plans for im-

plementation of Agenda 21. The Earth Charter consultation

process engaged men and women from all sectors of society

and all cultures in contributing to the Earth Charter’s devel-

opment. A special program was created to contact and in-

volve the world’s religions, interfaith organizations, and lead-

ing religious and ethical thinkers. A special indigenous

people’s network was also organized by the Earth Council.

Early in 1997, an Earth Charter Commission was

formed to oversee the project. The 23 members represent

the major regions of the world and different sectors of soci-

ety. The Commission issued a Benchmark Draft Earth

Charter in March 1997 at the conclusion of the Rio+5

Forum in Rio de Janeiro. The Forum was organized by the

Earth Council as part of its independent Rio+5 review,

and it brought together more than 500 representatives from

civil society and national councils of sustainable develop-

ment. The Benchmark Draft reflected the many and diverse

398

contributions received through the consultation process and

from the Rio+5 Forum. The Commission extended

the Earth Charter consultation until early 1998, and the

Benchmark Draft was circulated widely as a document in

progress.

The Earth Charter concept

A consensus developed that the Earth Charter should

be: a statement of fundamental principles of enduring signifi-

cance that are widely shared by people of all races, cultures,

and religions; a relatively brief and concise document com-

posed in a language that is inspiring, clear, and meaningful

in all tongues; the articulation of a spiritual vision that reflects

universal spiritual values, including but not limited to ethical

values; a call to action that adds significant new dimensions

of value to what has been expressed in earlier relevant docu-

ments; a people’s charter that serves as a universal code of

conduct for ordinary citizens, educators, business executives,

scientists, religious leaders, nongovernmental organizations,

and national councils of sustainable development; and a dec-

laration of principles that can serve as a “soft law” document

when adopted by the U.N. General Assembly. The Earth

Charter was designed to focus on fundamental principles

with the understanding that the IUCN Covenant and other

treaties will set forth the more specific practical implications

of these principles.

The Earth Charter draws upon a variety of resources,

including

ecology

and other contemporary sciences, the

world’s religious and philosophical traditions, the growing

literature on global ethics and the ethics of environment

and development, the practical experience of people living

sustainably, as well as relevant intergovernmental and non-

governmental declarations and treaties. At the heart of the

new global ethics and the Earth Charter is an expanded

sense of community and moral responsibility that embraces

all people,

future generations

, and the larger community of

life on Earth. Among the values affirmed by the Benchmark

Draft are: respect for Earth and all life; protection and resto-

ration of the health of Earth’s ecosystems; respect for human

rights, including the right to an environment adequate for

human well-being; eradication of poverty; nonviolent prob-

lem solving and peace; the equitable sharing of resources;

democratic participation in decision making; accountability

and transparency in administration; universal education for

sustainable living; and a sense of shared responsibility for

the well-being of the Earth community.

[Steven C. Rockefeller]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Earth Ethics, Special Earth Charter Double Issue. Washington, D.C.:

Center for Respect of Life and Environment, 7, nos. 3/4 (Spring/Summer,

1996): 1-7 and 8, nos. 2/3 (Winter/Spring, 1997): 3-8.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Day

Rockefeller, S.C. Principles of Environmental Conservation and Sustainable

Development: Summary and Survey. The Earth Council website, The Earth

Charter Consultation page: <http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr>..

RGANIZATIONS

The Earth Charter Initiative, The Earth Council, P.O. Box 319-6100,

San Jose, Costa Rica +506-205-1600 , Fax: +506-249-3500, Email:

info@earthcharter.org, <http://www.earthcharter.org>

Earth Day

The first Earth Day, April 22, 1970, attracted over 20 million

participants in the United States. It launched the modern

environmental movement and spurred the passage of several

important environmental laws. It was the largest demonstra-

tion in history. People from all walks of life took part in

marches, teach-ins, rallies, and speeches across the country.

Congress adjourned so that politicians could attend home-

town events, and cars were banned from New York’s Fifth

Avenue.

The event had a major impact on the nation. Following

Earth Day,

conservation

organizations saw their member-

ships double and triple. Within months, the

Environmental

Protection Agency

(EPA) was created; Congress also re-

vised the

Clean Air Act

, the

Clean Water Act

, and other

environmental laws.

The concept for Earth Day began with Senator Gay-

lord Nelson, a Wisconsin Democrat, who in 1969 proposed

a series of environmental teach-ins on college campuses

across the nation. Hoping to satisfy a course requirement at

Harvard by organizing a teach-in there, law student Denis

Hayes flew to Washington, DC, to interview Nelson. The

senator persuaded Hayes to drop out of Harvard and orga-

nize the nationwide series of events that were only a few

months away. According to Hayes, Wednesday, April 22

was chosen because it was a weekday and would not compete

with weekend activities. It also came before students would

start “cramming” for finals, but after the winter thaw in the

North.

Twenty years later, Earth Day anniversary celebrations

attracted even greater participation. An estimated 200 mil-

lion people in over 140 nations were involved in events

ranging from a concert and rally of over a million people in

New York’s Central Park, to a festival in Los Angeles that

attracted 30,000, to a rally of 350,000 at the National Mall

in Washington, D.C.

Earth Day 1990 activities included planting trees;

cleaning up roads, highways, and beaches; building bird

houses;

ecology

teach-ins; and

recycling

cans and bottles.

A convoy of

garbage

trucks drove through the streets of

Portland, Oregon, to dramatize the lack of

landfill

space.

Elsewhere, children wore gas masks to protest

air pollution

others marched in parades wearing costumes made from

399

recycled materials, and some even released ladybugs into the

air to demonstrate alternatives to harmful pesticides. The

gas-guzzling car that was buried in San Jose, California,

during the first Earth Day was dug up and recycled.

Abroad, Berliners planted 10,000 trees along the East-

West border. In Myanmar, there were protests against the

killing of

elephants

. Brazilians demonstrated against the

destruction of their tropical rain forests. In Japan, there were

demonstrations against disposable chopsticks, and 10,000

people attended a concert on an island built on reclaimed

land in Tokyo Bay.

The 1990 version was also organized by Denis Hayes,

with help from hundreds of volunteers. This time, the event

was well organized and funded; it was widely-supported by

both environmentalists and the business community. The

United Auto Workers Union sent Earth Day booklets to

all of its members, the National Education Association sent

information to almost every teacher in the country, and the

Methodist Church mailed Earth Day sermons to over 30,000

ministers.

The sophisticated advertising and public relations

campaign, licensing of its logo, and sale of souvenirs pro-

voked criticism that, Earth Day had become too commercial.

Even oil, chemical, and nuclear firms joined in and pro-

claimed their love for

nature

. But Hayes defended the pro-

fessional approach as necessary to maximize interest and

participation in the event, to broaden its appeal, and to

launch a decade of environmental activism that would force

world leaders to address the many threats to the planet. He

also pointed out that while foundations, corporations, and

individuals had donated $3.5 million, organizers turned

down over $4 million from companies that were thought to

be harming the

environment

The 30-year anniversary of the event was also orga-

nized by Hayes. Unfortunately, it did not produce the large

numbers of the prior anniversary celebration. The movement

had reached over 5,000 environmental groups who helped

organize local rallies, and hundreds of thousands of people

met in Washington to hear political, environmental, and

celebrity speakers.

Hayes believes that the long-term success of Earth

Day in securing a safe future for the planet depends on

getting as many people as possible involved in

environmen-

talism

. The Earth Day celebrations he helped organize a

have been a major step in that direction.

[Lewis G. Regenstein]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

Borrelli, P. “Can Earth Day Be Every Day?” Amicus Journal 12 (Spring

1990): 22-26.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Day

Marchers carry a tree down Fifth Avenue in New York City on the first Earth Day, April 22, 1970. (Corbis-Bettmann.

Reproduced by permission.)

400

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth First!

Two Earth First! Members hold a sign in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial to protest

the destruction of the earth’s rain forests.

Hayes, D. “Earth Day, 1990: Threshold of the Green Decade.” Natural

History 99 (April 1990): 55-60.

Stenger, Richard. “Thousands observe Earth Day 2000 in Washington.”

CNN.com (22 April 2000) [June 2002]. <http://www.cnn.com/2000/NA-

TURE/04/22/earth.day/index.html>.

Earth First!

Earth First! is a radical and often controversial environmental

group founded in 1979 in response to what

Dave Foreman

and other founders believed to be the increasing co-optation

of the environmental movement. For Earth First! members,

too much of the environmental movement has become le-

thargic, compromising, and corporate in its orientation. To

avoid a similar fate, Earth First! members have restricted

their use of traditional fund-raising techniques and have

sought a non-hierarchical organization with neither a profes-

sional staff nor formal leadership.

A movement established by and for self-acknowledged

environmental hardliners, Earth First!’s general stance is

reflected in its slogan, “No compromise in the defense of

401

Mother Earth.” Its policy positions are based upon principles

deep ecology

and in particular on the group’s belief in

the

intrinsic value

of all natural things. Its goals include

preserving all remaining

wilderness

, ending

environmen-

tal degradation

of all kinds, eliminating major

dams

, es-

tablishing large-scale ecological preserves, slowing and even-

tually reversing human

population growth

, and reducing

excessive and environmentally harmful consumption.

Combining biocentrism with a strong commitment to

activism, Earth First! does not restrict itself to lobbying,

lawsuits, and letter-writing, but also employs direct action,

civil disobedience, “guerrilla theater,” and other confronta-

tional tactics, and in fact is probably best known for its

various clashes with the

logging

industry, particularly in the

Pacific Northwest. Earth First! members and sympathizers

have been associated with controversial tactics including the

chopping down of billboards and

monkey-wrenching

which includes pouring sand in bulldozer gas tanks, spiking

trees, sabotaging drilling equipment, and so forth. Officially,

the organization purports neither to condone nor condemn

such tactics.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Island Institute

Earth First! encourages people to respect

species

and

wilderness, to refrain from having children, to recycle, to

live simpler, less destructive lives, and to engage in civil

disobedience to thwart environmental destruction. During

the summer of 1990, the group sponsored its most noted

event, “Redwood Summer.” Activists from around the

United States gathered in the Northwest to protest large-

scale logging operations, to call attention to environmental

concerns, to educate and establish dialogues with loggers

and the local public, and to engage in civil disobedience.

Earth First! also sponsors a

Biodiversity

Project for

protecting and restoring natural ecosystems. Its Ranching

Task Force educates the public about the consequences of

overgrazing

in the American West. The

Grizzly Bear

Task Force focuses on the preservation of the grizzly bear

in the Rockies and the reintroduction of the species to its

historical range throughout North America. Earth First!’s

wider Predator Project seeks the restoration of all native

predators to their respective habitats and ecological roles.

Carmageddon is an anti-car campaign Earth First! sponsors

in the United Kingdom. Other Earth First! projects seek to

defend

redwoods

and other native forests, encourage direct

action against the fur industry, intervene in government-

sponsored wolf-control programs in the U.S. and Canada,

and protest government and business decisions which have

environmentally destructive consequences for tropical rain

forests.

[Lawrence J. Biskowski]

Earth Island Institute

The Earth Island Institute (EII) was founded by David

Brower in 1982 as a nonprofit organization dedicated to

developing innovative projects for the

conservation

, preser-

vation, and restoration of the global

environment

. In its

earliest years, the Institute worked primarily with a volunteer

staff and concentrated on projects like the first Conference

on the Fate of the Earth, publication of Earth Island Journal,

and the production of films about the plight of

indigenous

peoples

. In 1985 and again in 1987, EII expanded its facili-

ties and scope, opening office space and providing support

for a number of allied groups and projects. Its membership

now numbers approximately 35,000.

EII conducts research on, and develops critical analyses

of, a number of contemporary issues. With sponsored projects

ranging from saving

sea turtles

to encouraging land restora-

tion in Central America, EII does not restrict its scope to tra-

ditionally “environmental” goals but rather pursues what it

sees as ecologically-related concerns such as human rights,

economic development of the

Third World

, economic con-

version from military to peaceful production, and inner city

402

poverty, among others. But much of its mission is to be an

environmental educator and facilitator. In that role EII spon-

sors or participates in numerous programs designed to provide

information, exchange viewpoints and strategies, and coordi-

nate efforts of various groups. EII even produces music videos

as part of its

environmental education

efforts.

EII is perhaps best known for its efforts to halt the use

of drift nets by tuna boats, a practice which is often fatal to

large numbers of

dolphins

. After an EII biologist signed on

as a crew member aboard a Latin American tuna boat and

managed to document the slaughter of dolphins in drift nets,

EII brought a lawsuit to compel more rigorous enforcement

of existing laws banning tuna caught on boats using such nets.

EII also joined with other environmental groups in urging a

consumer boycott of canned tuna. These efforts were success-

ful in persuading the three largest tuna canners to pledge not

to purchase tuna caught in drift nets. The monitoring of tuna

fishing practices is an ongoing EII project.

EII also sponsors a wide variety of other projects. Its

Energy Program promotes energy efficient technology. Its

Friends of the Ancient Forest program aims at the protection

of old-growth forests on the Pacific Coast. Baikal Watch

works for the permanent protection of biologically unique

Lake Baikal

, Russia. The Climate Protection Institute pub-

lishes the Greenhouse Gas-ette and develops public education

material about changes in global climate. EII participates in

the International Green Circle, an ecological restoration

program which matches volunteers with ongoing projects

worldwide. EII’s Sea Turtle Restoration Project investigates

threats to the world’s endangered sea turtles, organizes and

educates United States citizens to protect the turtles, and

works with Central American sea turtle restoration projects.

The

Rain Forest

Health Alliance develops educational ma-

terials and programs about the biological diversity of tropical

rain forests. The Urban

Habitat

Program develops multicul-

tural environmental leadership and organizes efforts to re-

store urban neighborhoods.

EII administers a number of funds designed to support

creative approaches to environmental conservation, preserva-

tion, and restoration to support activists exploring the use

of citizen suit provisions of various statutes to enforce envi-

ronmental laws and to help develop a Green political move-

ment in the United States. EII also sponsors several interna-

tional conferences, exchange programs, and publication

projects in support of various environmental causes.

[Lawrence J. Biskowski]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Earth Island Institute, 300 Broadway, Suite 28, San Francisco, CA USA

94133-3312 (415) 788-3666, Fax: (415) 788-7324, <http://

www.earthisland.org>

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Liberation Front

Earth Liberation Front (ELF) is a grassroots environmental

group that the Federal Bureau of Investigation labeled “a

serious terrorism threat.” Since 1996, ELF and the Animal

Liberation Front (ALF) committed more than 600 acts of

vandalism that resulted in more than $43 million in damage,

an FBI terrorism expert reported to Congress in 2002.

James Jarboe, the FBI section chief for Domestic Ter-

rorism, told Congress that it was hard to track down ELF

and AlF members because the two groups have little orga-

nized structure. According to the ELF link on the ALF

Web site, there is no designated leadership nor formal mem-

bership. ELF and ALF claim responsibility for their activi-

ties by e-mail, fax, and other communications usually sent

to the media.

In 2002, media information was provided by the North

American Earth Liberation Front Press Office. Spokesman

Leslie James Pickering wrote that he received anonymous

communique

s from ELF and further distributed them.

ELF describes itself as an international underground

organization dedicated “to stop the continued destruction

of the natural environment.” Members join anonymous cells

that may consist of one person or more. Members of one

cell do not know the identity of members in other cells,

a structure that prevents activists in one cell from being

compromised should members in another cell become disaf-

fected. People act on their own and carry out actions follow-

ing anonymous ELF postings. ELF actions include sabotage

and property damage.

ELF postings include guidelines for taking action.

One guideline is to inflict “economic damage on people who

profit from the destruction and exploitation of the natural

environment.” Another guideline is to reveal and educate

the public about the “atrocities” committed against the

envi-

ronment

. The third guideline is to take all needed precau-

tions against harming any animal, human and non-human.

ELF is an outgrowth of

Earth First!

, a group formed

during the 1980s to promote environmental causes. Earth

First! held protests and civil disobedience events, according

to the FBI. In 1984, Earth First! members began a campaign

of “tree spiking.” to prevent loggers from cutting down trees.

Members inserted metal or ceramic spikes into trees. The

spikes damaged saws when loggers tried to cut down trees.

When Earth First! members in Brighton, England

disagreed with proposals to make their group more main-

stream, radical members of the group founded the Earth

Liberation Front in 1992. The following year, ELF aligned

itself with ALF.

The Animal Liberation Front was started in Great

Britain during the mid-1970s. The loosely organized move-

ment had the goal of ending animal abuse and exploitation

403

of animals. An American ALF branch was started in the

late 1970s. According to the FBI, people became members

by participating in “direct action” activities against compa-

nies or people using animals for research or economic gain.

ALF activists targeted animal research laboratories, fur com-

panies, mink farms, and restaurants.

ELF and ALF declared mutual solidarity in a 1993

announcement. The following year, the San Francisco

branch of Earth First! recommended that the group main-

stream itself away from ELF and its unlawful activities. ELF

calls its activities “monkeywrenching.", a term that refers to

actions such as tree spiking, arson, sabotage of

logging

equipment, and property destruction.

In a 43-page document titled “Year End Report for

2001,” ELF and ALF claimed responsibility for 67 illegal

acts that year. ELF claimed sole credit for setting a fire that

year that caused $5.4 million in damage to a University of

Washington horticulture building. The group also took sole

credit for a 1998 fire set at a Vail, Colorado ski resort.

Damage totaled $12 million for the arson that destroyed

four ski lifts, a restaurant, a picnic facility, and a utility

building, according to the FBI.

ELF issued a statement after the arson saying that the

fire was set to protect the lynx, which was being reintroduced

to the Rocky Mountains. “Vail, Inc. is already the largest

ski operation in North American and now wants to expand

even further...This action is just a warning. We will be back

if this greedy corporation continues to trespass into wild and

unroaded areas,” the statement said.

In 2002, ELF claimed credit for a fire that caused

$800,000 in damage at the University of Minnesota Micro-

bial Plant and Genomics Center. ELF targeted the genetic

crop laboratory because of its efforts to “control and exploit”

nature

“Eco-terrorism” is the term used by the FBI to define

illegal activities related to

ecology

and the environment.

These activities involve the “use of criminal violence against

innocent victims or property by an environmentally-oriented

group.”

Although ELF members are difficult to track, several

arrests have been made. In February 2001, two teen-age

boys pleaded guilty to setting fires at a home construction

site in Long Island, New York. In December of that year,

a man was also charged with spiking 150 trees in Indiana

state forests. In his Congress testimony, Jarboe said that

cooperation among law enforcement agencies was essential

to respond efficiently to eco-terrorism. As of 2002, the FBI

has joint terrorism task forces in 44 cities and the bureau

plans to have task forces in all 56 of its field offices by the

end of 2003.

[Liz Swain]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earth Pledge Foundation

ESOURCES

OOKS

Alexander, Yonah and Edgar H. Brenner. U. S. Federal Responses to Terror-

ism. Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2002.

Newkirk, Ingrid and Chrissie Hynde. Free the Animals: The Story of the

Animal Liberation Front. New York, NY: Lantern Books, 2000.

ERIODICALS

Society of American Foresters. “Legislator Focuses on Ecoterrorism

McInnis Asks Environmental Groups to Denounce Violence.” The Forestry

Source(January, 2002).

RGANIZATIONS

Federal Bureau of Investigation, 935 Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, DC

USA (202) 324-3000, , <http://www.fbi.gov>

North American Earth Liberation Front Press Office, James Leslie

Pickering, P.O. Box 14098, Portland, OR USA 97293 (503) 804-4965,

Email: elfpress@tao.ca, <http://www.animalliberation.net/library/facts/elf>

Earth Pledge Foundation

Created in 1991 by attorney Theodore W. Kheel, the Earth

Pledge Foundation (EPF) is concerned with the impact of

technology on society. Recognizing the often delicate bal-

ance between economic growth and environmental protec-

tion, EPF encourages the implementation of sustainable

practices, especially in community development, tourism,

cuisine, and architecture.

As a result of the

United Nations Earth Summit

(Rio

de Janeiro) the UN pledged its commitment to the principles

of sustainable development—to foster “development meet-

ing the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of

future generations

to meet their own needs.”

Created for the Summit in support of the principles,

the Earth Pledge was prominently displayed throughout the

event. Heads of state, ambassadors, delegates, and prominent

dignitaries from around the world stood in line to sign their

names on a large Earth Pledge board. Since the Summit,

millions have taken the Earth Pledge: “Recognizing that

people’s actions towards

nature

and each other are the

source of growing damage to the

environment

and to re-

sources needed to meet human needs and ensure survival, I

pledge to act to the best of my ability to help make the

Earth a secure and hospitable home for present and future

generations.”

In early 1996, Earth Pledge created the Business Co-

alition for Sustainable Cities (BCSC) to influence the devel-

opment of cities as centers of commerce, employment,

recre-

ation

, and settlement. Chaired by William L. Lurie, former

president of The Business Roundtable, the BCSC provides

business leaders a forum to address issues of major impor-

tance to our cities in ways that ensure economic viability

404

while at the same time promoting respect for the environ-

ment. One event sponsored by the BCSC was a seven-course

dinner prepared by 12 of the nation’s most environmentally-

conscious chefs to showing off that restaurants, one of the

largest industries and employers, can practice the principles

of sustainable cuisine. The BCSC hosted the event with the

theme that good food can be well-prepared without adversely

impacting health, culture or environment. This theme was

elaborated on in 2000 when the Sustainable Cuisine Project

was established to develop and teach cooking classes.

The latest development by Earth Pledge is the creation

of the web site <farmtotable.org>. This web site highlights

local farmers of the New York region and give consumers

a direct link to fresh food news.

Earth Pledge has also formed a number of alliances

to further their goals with groups such as: The Foundation

for Prevention and Resolution of Conflict (PERC—founded

by Theodore Kheel); the United Nations Environmental

Programme (UNEP); EarthKind International; the New

England Aquarium.

As a joint project with the New England Aquarium,

EPF sponsors a marine awareness project that educates peo-

ple on the importance of coastlines and aquatic resources to

the

sustainable development

of the world’s cities. The

project emphasizes that many countries have water shortages

due to inefficient use of their water supply, degradation of

their water by

pollution

and unsustainable usage of

ground-

water

resources.

In late 1995, Earth Pledge co-sponsored the first Ca-

ribbean Conference on Sustainable Tourism with the UN

Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Devel-

opment, EarthKind International and UNEP. The Confer-

ence brought together officials from government and busi-

ness to discuss strategies for developing a healthy tourist

economy, sound infrastructure, environmental protection,

and community participation.

The foundation has constructed an environmentally-

sensitive building, Foundation House, to display their solu-

tions for improving

air quality

and

energy efficiency

. Sus-

tainable features include heating, cooling, and lighting sys-

tems that minimize consumption of

fossil fuels

; increased

ventilation and use of natural daylight; an auditorium for

conferences with Internet access and computer lab for train-

ing. The Foundation House houses exhibits, including one

on enhancing efficiency of the workplace for the benefit of

the staff.

Earth Pledge continues to develop smaller organiza-

tions and promote companies that participate in sustainable

practices.

[Nicole Beatty]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earthquake

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Earth Pledge Foundation, 122 East 38th Street , New York , NY USA

10016 (212) 725-6611, Fax: (212) 725-6774, , <http://

www.earthpledge.org>

Earth Summit

see

United Nations Earth Summit (1992)

Earthquake

Earthquakes have been around for as long as the planet and

have plagued humans throughout history. With no warning,

major earthquakes strike populated areas of the world every

year, killing hundreds, injuring thousands, and causing hun-

dreds of millions of dollars in damage. Yet despite millions

of dollars and decades of research, seismologists (scientists

who study earthquakes) are still unable to predict precisely

when and where an earthquake will happen.

An earthquake is a geological event in which rock

masses below the surface of the earth suddenly shift, releasing

energy and sending out strong vibrations to the surface.

Most earthquakes are caused by movement along a fault

line, which is a fracture in the earth’s crust. Thousands of

earthquakes happen each day around the world, but most

are too small to be felt.

Earth is covered by a crust of rock that is broken into

numerous plates. The plates float on a layer of molten (liquid)

rock within the earth called the mantel. This molten rock

moves and flows, and this movement is thought to cause

the shifting of the plates. When plates move, they either

slide past, bump into, overrun, or pull away from each other.

The movement of plates is called

plate tectonics

. Bound-

aries between plates are called faults.

Earthquakes can occur when there are any of the four

types of movement along a fault. Earthquakes along the San

Andreas and Hayward faults in California occur because of

two plates sliding past one another. Earthquakes also occur

if one plate overruns another. When this happens one plate

is pushed under the other plate, as on the western coast of

South America, the northwest coast of North America, and

in Japan. If plates collide but neither is pushed downwards,

as they do crossing Europe and Asia from Spain to Vietnam,

earthquakes result as the plates are pushed into each other

and are forced upwards, creating high mountain ranges.

Many faults at the floor of the ocean are between two plates

moving apart. Many earthquakes with centers at the floor

of the ocean are caused by this kind of movement.

The relative size of earthquakes is measured by the

Richter Scale, which measures the energy an earthquake

releases. Each whole number increase in value on the Richter

405

scale indicates a ten-fold increase in the energy released

and a thirty–fold increase in ground motion. An earthquake

measuring 8 on the Richter scale is ten times more powerful,

therefore, than an earthquake with a Richter magnitude of

7. Another scale, called the Mercalli Scale uses observations

of damage (such as fallen chimneys) or people’s assessments

of effects (such as mild or severe ground shaking) to describe

the intensity of a quake. The Richter Scale is open-ended,

while the Mercalli scale ranges from 1–12.

Catastrophic earthquakes happened just as often in

past human history as they do today. Earthquakes shattered

stone-walled cities in the ancient world, sometimes has-

tening the ends of civilizations. Earthquakes destroyed

Knossos, Chattusas, and Mycenae, ancient cities in Europe

located in tectonically active mountain ranges. Scribes have

documented earthquakes in the chronicles of ancient coun-

tries. An earthquake is recorded in the Bible in the Book

of Zachariah, and the Apostle Paul wrote that he escaped

from jail when the building fell apart around him during an

earthquake.

Many faults are located in California because two large

plates are sliding past each other there. Of the 15 largest

recorded earthquakes ever to hit the continental United

States, eight have occurred in California, according to the

United States

Geological Survey

(USGS). The San Fran-

cisco earthquake of 1906 is perhaps the most famous. It

struck on April 4, 1906, killing an estimated 3,000 people,

injuring thousands, and causing $524 million in property

loss. Many of the casualties and much of the damage resulted

from the ensuing fires. This earthquake registered a 7.7

magnitude on the Richter Scale and 11 on the Mercalli

Scale. Four other devastating earthquakes have occurred in

California in the twentieth century: 1933 in Long Beach,

1971 in the San Fernando Valley, 1989 in the San Francisco

Bay area, and 1994 in Los Angeles.

The Long Beach earthquake struck on March 10,

1933, killing 120, injuring hundreds, and causing more than

$50 million in property damage. It led to the passage of

the state’s Field Act, which established strict building code

standards designed to make structures better able to with-

stand strong earthquakes.

Centered about 30 mi (48 km) north of downtown

Los Angeles, the San Fernando earthquake killed 65, injured

more than 2,000, and caused an estimated $505 million in

property damage. The quake hit on February 9, 1971, and

registered 6.5 on the Richter Scale and 11 on the Mercalli

Scale. Most of the deaths occurred when the Veterans Ad-

ministration Hospital in San Fernando collapsed.

The Loma Prieta earthquake occurred on October 18,

1989, in the Santa Cruz Mountains about 62 mi (100 km)

south of San Francisco. It killed 63, injured 3,757, and

caused an estimated $6 billion in property damage, mostly

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Earthwatch

in San Francisco, Oakland, and Santa Cruz. The earthquake

was a 6.9 on the Richter Scale and 9 on the Mercalli Scale.

The Northridge earthquake that struck Los Angeles

on January 17, 1994, killed 72, injured 11,800, and caused

an estimated $40 billion in damage. It registered 6.7 on the

Richter Scale and 9 on the Mercalli Scale. It was centered

about 30 mi (48 km) northwest of downtown Los Angeles.

In the past 100 years, Alaska has had many more severe

earthquakes than California. However, they have occurred

in mostly sparsely populated areas, so deaths, injuries, and

damage have been light. Of the 15 strongest earthquakes

ever recorded in the 50 states, 10 have been in Alaska, with

the strongest registering a 9.2 (the second strongest ever

recorded in the world) on the Richter Scale and 12 on the

Mercalli Scale. It struck the Anchorage area on March 28,

1964, killing 125 (most from a tsunami or tidal wave caused

by the earthquake), injuring hundreds, and causing $311

million in property damage.

The strongest earthquake ever recorded in the world

registered 9.5 on the Richter scale and 12 on the Mercalli

Scale. It occurred on May 22, 1960, and was centered off

the coast of Chile. It killed 2,000, injured 3,000, and caused

$675 million in property damage. A resulting tsunami caused

death, injuries, and significant property damage in Hawaii,

Japan, and the West Coast of the United States.

Every major earthquake raises the question of whether

scientists will ever be able to predict exactly when and where

one will strike. Today, scientists can only make broad predic-

tions. For example, scientists believe there is at least a 50%

chance that a devastating earthquake will strike somewhere

along the San Andreas fault within the next 100 years. A

more precise prediction is not yet possible. However, scien-

tists in the United States and Japan are working on ways

they might be able to make predictions more specific.

Ultra sensitive instruments placed across faults at the

surface can measure the slow, almost imperceptible move-

ment of fault blocks. This measurement records the great

amount of potential energy stored at the fault boundary. In

some areas, small earthquakes called foreshocks that precede

a larger earthquake may help seismologists predict the larger

earthquake. In other areas where seismologists believe earth-

quakes should be occurring but are not, this discrepancy

between what is expected and what is observed may be used

to predict an inevitable large-scale earthquake.

Other instruments measure additional fault-zone phe-

nomena that seem to be related to earthquakes. The rate at

which

radon

gas issues from rocks near faults has been

observed to change before an earthquake. The properties

of the rocks themselves (such as their ability to conduct

electricity) have been observed to change as the tectonic

force exerted on them slowly alters the rocks of the fault

zone between earthquakes. Unusual animal behavior has

406

been reported before many earthquakes, and research into

this phenomenon is a legitimate area of scientific inquiry,

even though no definite answers have been found.

Techniques of studying earthquakes from space are

also being explored. Scientists have found that ground dis-

placements cause waves in the air that travel into the iono-

sphere and disturb electron densities. By using the network

of satellites and ground stations that are part of the Global

Positioning System (GPS), and data about the ionosphere

that is already being collected, scientists may better under-

stand the energy released from earthquakes. This may help

scientists to predict them.

[Ken R. Wells]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Henyey, Tom. Natural Disasters: Earthquakes: A Reference Handbook. Santa

Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002.

Hough, Susan Elizabeth. Earthshaking Science: What We Know, and Don’t

Know, About Earthquakes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Nicolson, Cynthia Pratt. Earthquake. Tonawanda, NY: Kids Can Press,

2002.

ERIODICALS

Chan-Kai, Alex. “Skate Disaster.” Stone Soup (July 2001):26.

Johnson, Rita. “Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On!” Boys’ Life (Dec. 2001):7–8.

Matty, Jane M. “Recent Quakes.” Rocks & Minerals (March 2000):90.

Middleton, Nick. “Managing Earthquake Hazards In Los Angeles.” Geogra-

phy Review (May 2001):22.

Nur, Amos. “And the Walls Came Tumbling Down.” New Scientist (July

6, 1991): 45–49.

Thompson, Dick. “Can We Save California? Predicting Earthquakes is

One Thing; Preventing Them Would Be Something Else.” Time (April

10, 2000):104+.

RGANIZATIONS

National Earthquake Information Center, P.O. Box 25046, DFC, MS

967, Denver, CO USA 80225 (303) 273-8500, Fax: (303) 273-8450,

Email: sedas@neis.cr.usgs.gov, <http://www.neic.usgs.gov>

Earthwatch

Earthwatch is a non-profit institution that provides paying

volunteers to help scientists around the world conduct field

research on environmental and cultural projects. It is one of

the world’s largest private sponsors of field research expedi-

tions. Its mission is “to improve human understanding of

the planet, the diversity of its inhabitants, and the processes

which affect the quality of life on earth” by working “to

sustain the world’s

environment

, monitor global change,

conserve endangered habitats and

species

, explore the vast

heritage of our peoples, and foster world health and interna-

tional cooperation.”