Hatfield J.L., Gandini A. (eds.) Nitrogen in the Environment

374 Nitrogen in the Environment

international levels, such as the UNECE Gothenburg Protocol, which is the first

international treaty targeting NH

3

emissions and aims to reduce overall European

NH

3

emission by 20% of the 1990 levels by 2010.

National targets for emission abatement often aim to reach “ no exceedance ”

of critical thresholds as a goal. However, it is not feasible to protect all ecosystems

from the effects of ammonia without having to severely reduce agricultural activi-

ties in large areas of a country. A more pragmatic approach would be to decide

which areas should be protected, in addition to those that must be protected by

law, such as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) or Special Protection Areas

(SPA), which are covered by the Habitats Directive (e.g., Sutton et al., 2004d ). For

instance, it is not necessary to protect forest monocultures, while a logical focus

would be on reducing impacts in semi-natural woodland and other protected areas.

5.2 . Abatement of Emissions from Agriculture

As the majority of NH

3

emissions originate from agricultural activities (and

in particular manure management), most efforts in developing abatement meth-

ods have been in the agricultural sector. If the “ N flow ” model of emissions (see

Section 2.2) is followed through the stages of manure management, NH

3

emissions

may be abated at any stage of the flow (e.g., during manure storage or application

to land). However, volatilization prevented at an early stage in the process could

occur at a later stage, thus undoing any emission savings, unless a whole-system

approach is taken. As land-spreading is the final stage of manure management, it is

especially important to minimize emissions at this stage.

In Europe, investigations into the available techniques for ammonia abate-

ment and their effectiveness have been reviewed by the UNECE Expert Group on

Ammonia Abatement. The following summary is based on the findings reported by

the Expert Group ( UNECE, 2001 ).

In contrast to measures attempting to minimize NH

3

volatilization from N after

it has been excreted by livestock (end-of-pipe approach), manipulating the diet of

livestock to minimize N excretion aims to reduce the amount of reactive N in the

system that may contribute to NH

3

emissions and at the same time aims to reduce

cascading effects of N (e.g., Galloway, 2005 ). Livestock feeding strategies match-

ing the feed protein content more closely to an animal ’ s requirements and its cur-

rent growth stage can reduce the total N excreted by up to 20% for pigs and up to

10% for poultry ( European IPPC Bureau, 2002 ). For cattle and sheep, N excretion

depends on the proportion of grass, grass silage and hay in the feed and their pro-

tein content. Excretion rates can be reduced by ensuring that the N fertilizer appli-

cation rate to grass is not excessive and by substituting some of the fresh grass with

roughage of lower protein content (maize, silage, hay, straw, etc.).

Emissions from land-spreading of manures account for a large part of total

agricultural NH

3

emissions. By using appropriate spreading methods (e.g., injection

of slurries where suitable, band-spreading or rapid incorporation of solid manure)

and taking account of environmental conditions at the time of application, NH

3

CH11-P374347.indd 374CH11-P374347.indd 374 5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM

Sources, Dispersion and Fate of Atmospheric Ammonia 375

emissions will be reduced as well as more N being available to the crop. Overall,

emissions from land-spreading of manures can be reduced by 10–90% compared

with surface broadcasting, depending on the liquid content of the manure, soil con-

ditions, and weather. For example, cool, still, and humid conditions are generally

considered beneficial for reducing emissions. Other techniques such as the use of

additives or acidification of slurry require further development to demonstrate prac-

ticability and effectiveness.

Abatement techniques for emissions from slurry tanks or lagoons are mainly

based on reducing the surface area of the store, the use of a cover or crust, and/or by

reducing the frequency of emptying or mixing of the manure. Overall, NH

3

emissions

from storage can be reduced by 35–95%, depending on the abatement method applied.

However, it is thought that artificial crusts may increase N

2

O and probably CH

4

emis-

sions ( UNECE, 2001 ), thus causing “ pollution swapping ” problems. At present there

are no proven techniques to reduce emission from stores of solid manures, apart from

keeping the stores dry (especially important for poultry manure). However, the incin-

eration of poultry manures for power generation results in shorter storage times and

mitigates the significant ammonia emissions from land-application.

Emissions from livestock housing can be reduced by designing newly built ani-

mal houses to minimize the area of NH

3

emitting surfaces, and by keeping such

areas as clean and dry as possible. Similarly, house designs may include efficient

channeling of slurry. Ammonia emissions from poultry housing are much smaller

when the dry matter content of the manure or litter is greater than 60%. Therefore

abatement techniques generally focus on drying and keeping the litter dry (e.g., by

reducing spillage of drinking water). Systems to control the feeding rate and inter-

nal environmental conditions based on the bird weight have the potential to reduce

NH

3

emissions by matching the feed intake to the bird performance. Biofilters and

chemical wet scrubbers can also be used to extract ammonia from the exhaust air

of ventilation units. Reported reductions in ammonia emissions for pig and poultry

housing are between 70% and 90% ( European IPPC Bureau, 2002 ). Generally,

emissions from grazing cattle and sheep are lower than from similar housed ani-

mals, because much of the urine infiltrates into the soil before the urea can degrade

to NH

3

. Increasing the grazing period in temperate areas such as the UK could

therefore decrease the ammonia emissions per animal ( Webb et al., 2005 ) although

this is not always practical due to climatic, soil, or welfare reasons.

Ammonia losses from ammonium nitrate fertilizers tend to be small in temper-

ate areas (  1–3%). However, losses from the application of urea can be as high as

30%, with typical figures being estimated at 23% for UK grasslands ( Misselbrook

et al., 2006 ). This is why abatement of ammonia emissions from fertilizers generally

focuses on the reduction of the amount of urea used or methods to reduce emissions

when urea is applied. If possible, the urea should be incorporated into the soil quickly

to reduce volatilization. Applying the urea just before rain to ensure that it is washed

into the soil is an effective method, but this relies on a predictable climate or accurate

weather prediction. Similarly, it should be noted that wet conditions are required for

CH11-P374347.indd 375CH11-P374347.indd 375 5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM

376 Nitrogen in the Environment

hydrolysis of urea to ammonium, so application in wet conditions could even increase

ammonia emissions from urea application in some circumstances. An effective but

costly method is the use of urease inhibitors, which slow down the breakdown of

the urea. However, such inhibitors may become more economically attractive as the

amount of fertilizer N saved in the process is substantial.

Changes in agricultural production methods and market forces can have a large

impact on total emissions. For example, if the average US citizen were to switch

to a diet more typical of some European regions (e.g., a “ Mediterranean-style

diet ” ) future US fertilizer use could decline dramatically. The Mediterranean diet

described in Howarth et al. (2002) assumes an average of 6 kg meat consumption

per capita, compared with an average of 44 kg per capita in the USA. Howarth et al.

(2002) estimate that, by 2030, US fertilizer use could decline to 6.9 Tg N/year in this

scenario, compared with an estimated 15.6 Tg N/year (taking account of population

increases predicted by the US Census Bureau, with dietary habits and net food and

feed export remaining constant).

5.3 . Reducing Emissions from Non-agricultural Sources

Ammonia emissions from non-agricultural sources contribute a smaller frac-

tion of total NH

3

emissions (15% in UK, Sutton et al., 2000 ), so that it is harder

to achieve a major reduction in emissions by focusing on this group of sources. In

addition, since many different sources contribute, a wide diversity of techniques is

necessary. In some cases, specific industries emit significant amounts of ammonia

(e.g., sugar beet processing, sewage processing, fertilizer production) and there is

therefore good potential to reduce these emissions. By contrast it would be chal-

lenging to reduce NH

3

emissions from such minor sources as human breath and

sweat, cigarette smoking, or household products such as cleaning agents. Other

non-agricultural NH

3

sources of a natural/non-anthropogenic nature whose emis-

sions cannot be abated are wild mammals (such as the large deer populations in the

UK), and seabird colonies. Ammonia sources such as domestic pets (cats and dogs)

and horses contribute a substantial proportion of the total non-agricultural NH

3

emissions in the UK, but are difficult to abate as they are mostly kept individually

or in small groups.

Significant NH

3

emissions also occur from road transport, that is, from the

use of catalytic converters in petrol cars (originally designed to reduce NO

x

emis-

sions, Sutton et al., 2000 ). These are expected in future to be abated through the

implementation of new technological developments designed to reduce NH

3

emissions.

5.4 . Pollution Swapping

Some abatement techniques that reduce ammonia emissions have the side-

effect of increasing the losses of other pollutants (e.g., nitrate (NO

3



), nitrous oxide

(N

2

O), methane (CH

4

)). It is important to take these trade-offs into account when

considering the use of abatement technology, since this “ pollution swapping ” is

CH11-P374347.indd 376CH11-P374347.indd 376 5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM

Sources, Dispersion and Fate of Atmospheric Ammonia 377

usually not desirable. Potential interactions between the some of the different proc-

esses have been investigated by Brink et al. (2001) . The RAINS model ( Alcamo et

al., 1990 ) was used to estimate NH

3

emissions for Europe under a range of abate-

ment scenarios. The effect of ammonia abatement on emissions of methane, nitrous

oxide, and the leaching of nitrates was then calculated. The results of this study are

summarized in Table 2 .

Great care is needed in the interpretation of such pollution swapping relation-

ships, since the results of the analyses are highly dependent on the scope of the

models used. For example, low NH

3

emission techniques for manure spreading are

often highlighted as increasing nitrate leaching and N

2

O emissions. At a field scale,

this is a reasonable conclusion. However, it must be recognized that a large frac-

tion of the effect is simply a result of saving more nitrogen in the plant–soil sys-

tem, through reducing NH

3

emissions. As a result, such techniques will reduce the

amount of NH

3

in the atmosphere, as well as reducing nitrate leaching and N

2

O

from semi-natural ecosystems originating from atmospheric N deposition. A full

assessment would need to fully account for such interactions.

Table 2.

Summary of effects of ammonia abatement techniques on the losses of other

pollutants (adapted from Brink et al., 2001 ).

Ammonia abatement

option

Effect on losses of methane (CH

4

), nitrous oxide (N

2

O)

and nitrate (NO

3



)

Beneficial Detrimental

Low nitrogen feed Reduction in emissions of

N

2

O and NO

3



leaching

None

Air scrubbers None Increase in emissions of N

2

O

Animal housing

adaptations *

Decrease in emissions of

CH

4

Increase in emissions of N

2

O

and NO

3



leaching

Covered storage of

manure

Decrease in storage

emissions of N

2

O

Increase in field emissions of

N

2

O, increase in emissions

of CH

4

and increase in

NO

3



leaching

Injection of manure None Increase in emissions of N

2

O

and NO

3



leaching

Substituting urea with

ammonium nitrate

None None

*

This analysis is for a range of techniques (e.g., regular cleaning, good floor design,

drying of poultry manure, etc.).

CH11-P374347.indd 377CH11-P374347.indd 377 5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM

378 Nitrogen in the Environment

5.5 . Reducing Impacts of Ammonia Through Spatial Abatement Methods

A common approach for applying national emission reduction targets is to

reduce all similar sources by equal proportions. However, this blanket approach does

not take account of the relative spatial relationships of sources and sinks of NH

3

in

the landscape. If abatement was focused on protecting specific sensitive receptors,

it would need to take account of local conditions in the vicinity of the receptor,

due to the rapid reactions of NH

3

over short distances from a source and the

subsequent high spatial variability of both atmospheric concentrations and dry dep-

osition. When focusing on the local level of source and sink interactions, abate-

ment options have to take account of the spatial interactions of landscape elements

and make use of “ spatial abatement ” methods ( Sutton et al., 2004d ; Dragosits et al.,

2006 ).

As well as reducing emissions of NH

3

at the sources, there are other options

available to reduce the subsequent impacts of the emissions. This can be achieved

by reducing the amount of NH

3

that reaches a sensitive receptor. One example of

this approach is the use of tree planting downwind of a NH

3

source. Since the dry

deposition velocity for trees is higher than that to other land cover types and the tur-

bulence created by the trees disperses the ammonia plume, trees provide a way of

enhancing the deposition close to sources and decreasing the concentration within

the plume. This will potentially reduce the deposition to sensitive receptors further

downwind. Work by Theobald et al. (2003) showed, with field experiments, that

NH

3

emitted from a source can be recaptured by a belt of trees downwind of the

source. Through the use of detailed dispersion and canopy deposition modeling, the

authors estimated that 5–15% of the emitted NH

3

could be recaptured by a tree belt.

The amount of NH

3

recaptured will depend on the respective height of the source

and the trees and the distance between them, amongst other factors. They also

showed that emissions could potentially be reduced by sheltering manure stored by a

windbreak of vegetation or other material. A windbreak will reduce the wind speed

passing over a manure store, thus reducing NH

3

emissions. Trees could also be used

for sheltering outdoor livestock. By allowing animals to range within woodlands,

there is a good chance of NH

3

recapture, since the emission takes place within the

woodland canopy and would therefore readily be recaptured. Pig and poultry rear-

ing in woodland environments is increasing in the UK (with several products avail-

able from large supermarket chains) (e.g., Philipps et al., 2002 ; Yates et al., 2007 ).

The authors of Theobald et al. (2003) highlighted four key benefits of farm wood-

lands with regard to NH

3

abatement: (1) reduced emission by sheltering of sources;

(2) recapture of emissions by trees downwind of the source; (3) recapture of

emissions of livestock within the woodland; and (4) increased dispersion and

dilution of the NH

3

plume due to the turbulence created by the trees. Dragosits

et al. (2006) also showed the potential benefit of tree belts planted either around

farm sources of NH

3

or around sensitive semi-natural habitats, by using local-scale

dispersion modeling. While tress planted in shelterbelts would eventually suffer

from the excess N deposition and dust, their role is essentially a “ sacrificial ” one,

CH11-P374347.indd 378CH11-P374347.indd 378 5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM5/31/2008 6:11:29 PM

Sources, Dispersion and Fate of Atmospheric Ammonia 379

and this would have to be managed to retain the protective role the shelterbelts are

performing.

Tree belts and keeping livestock under tree canopies all come under the cat-

egory of spatial abatement measures, since they deal with the relative locations of

sources and receptors. Other spatial abatement measures that have been investigated

by modeling studies are the reduction (or elimination) of emissions within zones

surrounding sensitive receptors ( Dragosits et al., 2006 ) and the relocation of sources

to move them further away from sensitive receptors. Oenema and Tamminga (2005)

suggested clustering of production functions to “ agro-production parks ” as another

measure, whereby the spatial distribution of emission sources would be restricted to

locations where dry deposition of NH

3

will have the least impact.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Natural Environment Research Council and the

Department for Environment, Food and Regional Affairs (Defra) for funding much

of the research carried out on ammonia at CEH, to David Simpson (Norwegian

Meteorological Institute) for provision of data from the EMEP model, and David

Stevenson (University of Edinburgh, Scotland) for provision of data from the

STOCHEM model, to Lex Bouwman (RIVM, The Netherlands) for global emis-

sion maps, to Marsailidh Twigg and Eiko Nemitz (CEH Edinburgh) for unpub-

lished data on high-resolution ammonia measurements, to Christina Cruz for useful

discussion on the effects of ammonia at the cellular level, and to Ian D. Leith (CEH

Edinburgh) for photos of ammonia damage to vegetation.

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Hatfield J.L., Gandini A. (eds.) Nitrogen in the Environment

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