Hatfield J.L., Gandini A. (eds.) Nitrogen in the Environment
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Gaseous Nitrogen Emissions from Livestock Farming Systems 425
Velthof et al., 1997 ). This suggests that the NH
4
from slurry is taken up by the
grass or by soil microbial biomass before it can be transformed into gaseous N
oxides. Moreover, it suggests that the carbon added with slurries does not increase
N
2
O emission. By contrast, Van Groenigen et al. (2004) showed much higher N
2
O
emission after application of cattle slurry than after application of NH
4
NO
3
ferti-
lizer to maize land. The contrasting effect of form of N application on N
2
O emis-
sion between grassland and arable land is probably due to the higher contents of
available C in grassland than in arable land.
The composition of the animal manure has a large effect on the emission of
N
2
O ( Table 5 ). Large emissions are associated with slurries with high contents of
inorganic N and easily mineralizable N and C (i.e., VFA). Animal nutrition affects
Table 5 .
Total N
2
O emission from fertilizers and manures applied to soil in an incubation
study ( Velthof et al., 2003 ).
Treatment
N
2
O emission
(mg N/kg soil
1
)
N
2
O emission (% of
N applied)
Control 0.6 A –
Ammonium sulfate 4.6 Cd 4.0
Ammonium nitrate 2.7 Bc 2.1
Liquid pig manure; traditional
farming
7.9 De 7.3
Liquid pig manure; organic farming 8.1 Bde 7.5
Liquid sow manure 14.5 E 13.9
Cattle slurry, traditional farming 3.6 Cd 3.0
Cattle slurry,
organic farming
2.4 Bc 1.8
Young cattle slurry 2.5 Bc 1.9
Layer manure 2.5 Bc 1.9
Broiler manure 1.1 Ab 0.5
Duck manure 1.2 Ab 0.6
1
Differences in letter indicate statistical signifi cant differences ( 0.05) between
treatments in log-transformed N
2
O emission.
the composition of the manure and thereby also N and C transformations and NH
3
and CH
4
emissions during manure storage and slurry-derived N
2
O emission from
soil ( Mroz et al., 1995 ; Kreuzer et al., 1998 ; Misselbrook et al., 1998 ; Paul et al.,
1998 ; Portejoie et al., 2004 ; Velthof et al., 2005 ). Evidently, decreasing the crude
protein content of the animal diet is an important tool to decrease gaseous N losses
from animal manure ( Rotz, 2004 ).
CH12-P374347.indd 425CH12-P374347.indd 425 5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM
426 Nitrogen in the Environment
7 . CONCLUDING REMARKS
Evidence for losses of gaseous N compounds that decrease the fertilizer value
of animal manure dates back to about 1850 ( Russell, 1912 ; Bussink and Oenema,
1998 ; and references therein), but it is only during the last three decades that such
losses have been associated with environmental effects. It is now well-recognized
that emission of gaseous N compounds into the atmosphere may contribute to a
cascade of environmental effects, in both the atmosphere and biosphere ( Galloway,
1998 ; Galloway et al., 2002 ), though all cause–effect relationships are not well-
understood yet. Further, it is recognized that livestock farming systems have a rela-
tively large share in the total atmospheric burden of NH
3
and N
2
O ( Dentener and
Crutzen, 1994 ; Bouwman et al., 1997 ; Mosier et al., 1998a ; Oenema and Tamminga
2005 ), and that this share may increase further during next decades if human pop-
ulation and animal protein consumption continue to increase ( Bruinsma, 2003 ).
However, the uncertainty in the estimated NH
3
, NO, and N
2
O losses from livestock
farming systems is still large. Interestingly, there is large potential for mitigation of
these losses, as suggested also by various authors cited in this chapter.
7.1 . Uncertainties in Estimated Gaseous N Losses from Livestock
Farming Systems
The uncertainty in the estimated contributions of livestock farming systems to
the total emissions of NH
3
, NO and N
2
O into the atmosphere stems in part from the
paucity in measurement data of gaseous N losses from animal housing systems and
manure storage systems, especially also for livestock farming systems in the devel-
oping countries. The number of farm animals is larger in developing countries than
in developed countries, while the number of measurements of the emissions of NH
3
,
NO, N
2
O and N
2
from livestock farming systems is much larger in developed coun-
tries than in developing countries. Further, there are more data about N losses associ-
ated with the application of slurry and manure to agricultural land than about N losses
from animal housing systems and manure storage systems, while N losses from hous-
ing systems, manure storage systems and from slurry application to land may be
equally large. To some extent, gaseous N losses from housing systems and manure
storage systems seem to have been neglected or simply considered as unavoidable.
The uncertainty in the estimates stems in part also from the complexity of the
N cycle of livestock farming systems and from the many interacting factors that
control the sources of NH
3
, NO, and N
2
O in these systems. There are still many
unknowns and there is a wide variety in animal nutrition, animal housing systems,
manure storage systems, and manure management. Environmental conditions
also have a large impact on gaseous N losses, though the effects of environmen-
tal conditions are in part entangled with the livestock farming systems itself. These
interacting factors complicate an accurate assessment of the total gaseous N losses
from livestock farming systems. Further, data statistics on animal housing systems,
manure storage, and manure management are poor. As discussed in the previous
CH12-P374347.indd 426CH12-P374347.indd 426 5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM
Gaseous Nitrogen Emissions from Livestock Farming Systems 427
sections of this chapter, subtle differences in manure storage and management can
have major effects on the emissions of NH
3
, NO, N
2
O, and N
2
.
The availability of measurement data about gaseous N losses from animal
manure decreases in the order NH
3
N
2
O NO N
2
. There are very few direct
measurements of NO emissions and there are no direct measurements of N
2
losses,
because of technical and analytical difficulties. Further, the possible role of anaero-
bic ammonium oxidation in determining N losses from livestock farming systems
has not been explored yet. The measurement of gaseous losses from animal housing
systems is complex, especially for natural vented housing systems with numerous
sites of air exchange. Small enclosures inside the housing system appear to pro-
vide biased estimates ( Monteny and Erisman, 1998 ) and the measurement of NH
3
,
N
2
O, and NO concentrations in the inside atmosphere, in combination with a proper
tracer gas such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6
) requires expensive equipment that only
recently have become available. Because of specialization and the funding-driven
research interests, there are only few combined or simultaneous measurements of
NH
3
, N
2
O, NO, and N
2
emissions from livestock farming systems or from a com-
partment of a livestock farming system ( Harper et al., 2000 ). Fortunately, tech-
niques and instrumentation have greatly improved during the last decades and it has
become easier to measure NH
3
, NO, and N
2
O emissions. Combined measurements
would improve our understanding of the factors that control NH
3
, N
2
O, and NO
emissions from livestock farming systems and would help to consider the interac-
tive nature of the gaseous N losses.
Simulation models have become common tools to improving our understanding
of the N transformations in animals, animal manure, and soil. Our knowledge of
the microbiology and biogeochemistry of NH
3
, NO, N
2
O, and N
2
formation proc-
esses is quite extensive, and the number of possible biophysicochemical controls
incorporated into simulation models is considerable, but there is still a great need
for calibration and validation of these models. There is also a need for linking and
integrating of models, as most models have been developed separately for animals,
manure, housing system, soil, and crop (e.g., Sommer et al., 2006). Models can help
to explain the gap that is often observed between laboratory and field. Our knowl-
edge of the managerial effects on NH
3
, NO, N
2
O, and N
2
emissions from livestock
farming systems in practice seem to be still inadequate.
Improving the accuracy of the estimates of gaseous N losses from livestock
farming systems requires also improved characterization of livestock farming sys-
tems and improved inventories of animal housing systems and manure manage-
ment. Monitoring of N balances of animal housing systems and especially of the
manure compartment may provide indirect estimates of the total gaseous N losses
from manure, especially when the N flows are quantified relative to an element that
is not conducive to gaseous N loss, such as phosphorus or potassium ( Oenema et al.,
2000 ). Establishing N/P balances of animal housing systems and manure storage sys-
tems requires proper sampling procedures and accurate chemical analyses of animal
feed and animal manure, but do not require expensive equipment and complicated
CH12-P374347.indd 427CH12-P374347.indd 427 5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM5/31/2008 6:16:02 PM
428 Nitrogen in the Environment
calculations. When combined with direct measurements of NH
3
, N
2
O, and NO emis-
sions, N/P balances can provide an independent check of the accuracy of the direct
measurements. Evidently, monitoring N/P balances can be practiced also in remote
areas, without much complication.
7.2 . Mitigation of Gaseous N Losses from Livestock farming Systems
Measures to decreases NH
3
emissions from animal manure have been
researched from the end of the 18th century onward ( Bussink and Oenema, 1998 ),
so as to improve the N fertilizer value of the manure. This type of research received
new impetus when the emphasis in the research on N in agricultural systems shifted
from agronomic to environmental effects nearly 1 century later. It is now well-
recognized that a whole farming system ’ s approach is needed to examine measures
that may decrease N losses and more specifically gaseous N emissions. A systems
approach shows how intervening in one part may affect losses in another part of the
system. Because of the interactive nature of the processes involved, it is important
that any changes that are imposed are based on a mechanistic understanding of the
N cycle and N transformations ( Jarvis, 1997 ; Aarts et al., 2000 ; Rotz, 2004 ).
As the quest for food and more specifically animal protein will increase concom-
itant with the increase in global human population and standard of living, the quest
for measures to decrease gaseous N emissions from livestock farming systems will
increase too. Apart from social, economical, political, and cultural implications, it is
a major challenge to transfer the message and the available insights and techniques
to decrease gaseous N emissions from livestock farming systems to the stakeholders,
that is, the farmers. Education and implementation of best management practices are
the first steps, but financial incentives will be needed when the necessity for decreas-
ing gaseous N emissions increases. Bans and controls (do ’ s and don ’ ts) will be effec-
tive only when accompanied by education, extension, and financial incentives.
The N balance of the system is a good overall indicator for both the N use effi-
ciency and total-N losses. Therefore, targets for N surpluses for individual farms
may facilitate the implementation of technical measures to decrease N losses and
more specifically gaseous N emissions. Improving the productivity and N use effi-
ciency of the system, in combination with a lowering of the N input into the sys-
tem, seem to be the best strategy for decreasing gaseous N emissions from livestock
farming systems ( Aarts et al., 2000 ; Oenema et al., 2001 ). Improving the productiv-
ity and N use efficiency of the system shows up in the N balance, in the differ-
ence between total inputs and total outputs. Further, N balances for the different
compartments of the livestock farming systems may indicate the weakest chain in
the system and the potentials for improvement. Improving the productivity of the
herd genetically, improving the efficiency of utilization of feed N, and improving
the storage and management of manure and the utilization of the N in the manure
for the production of high yielding crops, all contribute to both the agronomic and
environmental performances of the farming system. Measures such as lowering the
protein intake of animals, shifting N excretion from urine to feces, lowering the pH
CH12-P374347.indd 428CH12-P374347.indd 428 5/31/2008 6:16:03 PM5/31/2008 6:16:03 PM
Gaseous Nitrogen Emissions from Livestock Farming Systems 429
of excreta, regular flushing of the floor in animal houses with acidified water, cov-
ering manure storage systems, direct injection of slurry in the soil, and proper tim-
ing of manure application may all greatly decrease NH
3
emissions from livestock
farming systems. Nevertheless, total-N losses will remain the same when these
measures are not accompanied with a decrease in total-N input into the system or
with an increase in total output via animal products.
While many technical measures have been developed and tested in practice for
the mitigation of NH
3
emissions from animal manure in some countries, there is
still little information about measures to decrease NO, N
2
O, and N
2
emissions from
livestock farming systems in practice. The formation of these gases is related to
nitrification and denitrification and hence to the partial aeration of the initial anoxic
manure. Addition of litter and drying facilitates the partial aeration of manure, and
so do animals that tread, snout, and scratch on and in the manure, as in deep litter
stables. Hence, emissions of NO, N
2
O, and N
2
are related to the type of animal
housing system and to manure management; emissions from slurries are low and
emissions from solid manure with litter and from manure that is subject to drying–
wetting fluctuations or partial aeration tend to be high. Nitrification is the rate lim-
iting step here. Though nitrifying bacteria are slow growers, there can be a steady
transformation of NH
4
into NO
2
and NO
3
concomitant with a small but steady
loss of NO and N
2
O during the aeration phase. This phase can be followed by a
pulse of NO, N
2
O, and N
2
from rapid denitrification of the accumulated NO
3
, with
highly varying ratios of NO to N
2
O to N
2
versus time. The ratios seem to depend
on site-specific environmental conditions. Evidently, mitigation measures for emis-
sions of NO, N
2
O, and N
2
require further considerations of the effects of manure
management and environmental conditions in practice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food
Quality in The Netherlands (program Mest & Mineralen) for funding this study.
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