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Yamulki , S. , S.C. Jarvis , and P. Owen . 1998 . Nitrous oxide emissions from excreta in a simu-

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443

Chapter 13. Exchange of Gaseous Nitrogen Compounds Between

Terrestrial Systems and the Atmosphere

A.R. Mosier

1494 Oakhurst Dr., Mount Pleasant, SC 29466, USA

Food production systems are important contributors to local, regional, and

global NH

3

, NO

x

(NO  NO

2

), and N

2

O budgets. Emissions of NH

3

and NO

x

(which are biologically and chemically active) into the atmosphere serve to redis-

tribute fixed nitrogen (N) to local and regional aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

that otherwise may be disconnected from the sources of the N gases. The emissions

of NO

x

also contribute to local elevated ozone concentrations while N

2

O emis-

sions contribute to global greenhouse gas accumulation and to stratospheric ozone

depletion.

Ammonia is the major gaseous base in the atmosphere and serves to neutralize

about 30% of the hydrogen ions in the atmosphere. About 50–75% of the ⬃ 5 5 T g

N/year NH

3

from terrestrial systems is emitted from animal- and crop-based agri-

culture from animal excreta and synthetic fertilizer application. About half of the

⬃ 50 Tg N/year of NO

x

emitted from the earth surface arises annually from fossil

fuel combustion and the remainder from biomass burning and emissions from soil.

The NO

x

emitted, principally as nitric oxide (NO), reacts rapidly in the atmosphere

and in a complex cycle with light, ozone, and hydrocarbons, and produces nitric

acid and particulate nitrate. These materials can interact with plants and the soil

locally or be transported from the site and interact with atmospheric particulate to

form aerosols. These salts and aerosols return to fertilize terrestrial and aquatic sys-

tems in wet and dry deposition. A small fraction of this N may be biologically con-

verted to N

2

O. About 5% of the total atmospheric greenhouse effect is attributed to

N

2

O from which ⬃ 70% of the annual global anthropogenic emissions come from

animal and crop production.

The coupling of increased population, with a move of a large sector of the

world population to diets that require more energy and N input, will lead to contin-

ued increases in anthropogenic input into the global N cycle. This scenario suggests

that emissions of NH

3

, NO

x

, and N

2

O from agricultural systems will continue to

increase and impact global terrestrial and aquatic systems, even those far removed

from agricultural production, to an ever-growing extent, unless N resources are used

more efficiently or food consumption trends change.

Nitrogen in the Environment: Sources, Problems, and Management

J.L. Hatfield and R.F. Follett (Eds)

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444 Nitrogen in the Environment

1 . GLOBAL TRENDS IN HUMAN-INDUCED ADDITIONS OF REACTIVE

NITROGEN TO EARTH ’ S BIOSPHERE

During the past four decades we have seen historically unprecedented additions

of reactive nitrogen (N) into terrestrial systems ( Vitousek et al., 1997 ). These inputs

of reactive N (termed here as NH

x

(NH

3

and NH

4



), NO

x

(NO  NO

2

), and nitrate

and nitrite) are through increased biological fixation of atmospheric N

2

in crop pro-

duction, combustion of fossil fuels and release of NO

x

, and production of synthetic

fertilizer N ( Galloway et al., 1994, 1995 ). There is an additional release of reactive

N from stable soil organic matter as a result of soil disturbance for crop production

that is not readily quantifiable.

“ Natural ” fixation of atmospheric N

2

primarily by lightning and biological

processes is estimated to be about 100 Tg N, globally ( Galloway et al., 1995 ), and

is assumed to have remained relatively constant during the past century. A new glo-

bal estimate ( Cleveland et al., 1999 ) suggests that background terrestrial biological

N-fixation is higher, on the order of 100–290 Tg N/year. Imposed upon the natural

conversion of atmospheric N

2

to usable forms of N is the human-induced production

of reactive N. Anthropogenic production has increased from ⬃ 40 Tg N/year in 1961

to ⬃ 160 Tg in 1995 ( Smil, 1999 ). Holland and Lamarque (1997) estimated NO

x

pro-

duced during fossil fuel combustion to be ⬃ 11 Tg in 1961 while biological N-fixation

in crops such as pulses, soybeans, groundnuts, and forage legumes and by algae and

other microorganisms in rice fields was about 18 Tg N ( Galloway et al., 1995 ); and

synthetic N fertilizer production was 12.9 Tg N ( FAO, 1999 ). In 1995 these inputs had

increased to 25, 48, and 87 Tg N, respectively. Galloway et al. (1995) discussed that

we can account for only about 60 Tg of this anthropogenic N fixed in 1990, through

accumulation of N

2

O in the atmosphere ( ⬃ 3 Tg), movement into coastal waters by

river flow ( ⬃ 41 Tg), and atmospheric deposition into the open oceans ( ⬃ 18 Tg). The

remaining 80 Tg N/year must either be retained in terrestrial systems in groundwater,

soils, vegetation, or denitrified to N

2

. Although the exact values for each area of N

accumulation is uncertain, Galloway et al. (1995) concluded that reactive N is accu-

mulating in terrestrial systems.

We also know that much of the reactive N that is produced from combustion,

legume crop N-fixation, and synthetic N fertilizer is distributed to terrestrial and

aquatic systems in a variety of ways. Gaseous transport of N compounds is one

such mechanism. Much of the newly fixed N is directed to food production. The

reprocess ing of N through animals leads to the distribution of N through volatil-

ization of ammonia and runoff and leaching from soils. Part of the N applied to

soils used for crop production is lost from the field through leaching of nitrate into

groundwater and/or runoff from fields into surface water systems. The N consumed

by humans is mostly released in waste processing systems and returned to aquatic

and soil systems. These loss processes lead to problems of interactions with other

biological systems down wind or down stream.

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Exchange of Gaseous Nitrogen Compounds 445

2 . GLOBAL FOOD PRODUCTION AND NITROUS OXIDE

In most agricultural soils, biogenic formation of N

2

O is enhanced by an

increase in available mineral N which, in turn, increases nitrification and denitri-

fication through which N

2

O is produced. Nitrogen fertilization, therefore, directly

results in additional N

2

O formation in the field in which the N is applied. The IPCC

1997 National Inventory Guidelines for N

2

O from Agriculture ( IPCC, 1997 ; Mosier

et al., 1998 ) refer to N

2

O emissions directly from agricultural fields as direct emis-

sions. In addition, these N inputs may lead to indirect formation of N

2

O after N

leaching or runoff, or following gaseous losses and deposition of NO

x

and NH

3

and following human consumption of agricultural products and waste processing

in sewage systems, termed indirect emissions ( IPCC, 1997 ). These National N

2

O

Inventory Guidelines consider a variety of sources of N in agricultural systems as

anthropogenic; including synthetic fertilizers, animal manures (urine and feces),

N derived from enhanced biological N-fixation through N

2

-fixing crops, crop resi-

due returned to the field after harvest and human sewage sludge application. Some

part of the animal manure N, crop residue and sewage may have come from previ-

ous application of synthetic fertilizer. However, the re-entry of this N back into the

soil system renders it again susceptible to microbial processes which produce N

2

O

( IPCC, 1997 ; Mosier et al., 1998 ). In addition to the direct and indirect N

2

O emis-

sions the IPCC (1997) Guidelines estimate N

2

O emissions that result from animal

waste management systems separately from animal manures that are used as ferti-

lizers. The animal component includes N

2

O emissions from animal waste deposi-

tion in pastures and animal confinements.

2.1 . Total Fertilizer N Input into Agricultural Soils

According to the IPCC (1997) Guidelines, N input into agricultural systems

includes N input into cropping systems from synthetic fertilizer N, biological N-fixa-

tion, return of crop residue, and animal manures. Using FAO data and human popula-

tion estimates to back calculate N input into crop production, assuming linear changes

in crop and livestock production, 1970 FAO data was used as the baseline to calculate

N used in crop production that are estimated for 1800–1961 ( Figure 1 ). From 1961,

the year that the FAO databases begin, the FAO (1999) data are used. Before 1960,

animal and human wastes were the major fertilizer source ( Kroeze et al., 1999 ). In

1950, synthetic fertilizer N input comprised about 7% of a total N input of ⬃ 5 6 T g

and 1996 synthetic N input was ⬃ 43% of a total input of ⬃ 190 Tg N. Animal waste

used as fertilizer was an estimated 37 Tg in 1950 compared to 65 Tg N in 1996.

2.2 . Global Annual N

2

O Emissions Estimates

Using the N input data shown in Figure 1 , estimates of global N

2

O emissions

from food production systems from 1800 until 1996 are shown in Figure 2 . Before

1950,  50% of the estimated N

2

O emission resulted directly or indirectly from

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Hatfield J.L., Gandini A. (eds.) Nitrogen in the Environment

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