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index
Abarca, Silvestre de (royal engineer), 61,
108–9
Aguadores, 42, 44, 46, 48
Aguirre, Francisco de (director of the
Asiento), 103–4, 129, 140
Alabama, 5
Alegría, Martín José de (Asiento adminis-
trator), 66, 67
Algeria, 123, 141
Almendares River, 163–66, 168, 170
Altarriba, Miguel de (intendant of Cuba),
61, 65, 66, 68, 80, 81, 109
Anaya, Ignacio de (captain), 23, 25, 28,
33–34, 36
Antigua, 101
Apalachee, 36, 37, 39, 130
Arango y Parreño, Francisco de (Cuban
intellectual), 160, 190, 191
Arcos y Moreno, Alonso (governor of
Oriente), 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35,
36, 37, 38
Arístegui, José de (director of the
Asiento), 103–4, 129, 140
Aristizábal, Gabriel de, 179–80, 182, 186,
188
Armona, José Antonio (administrator of
the mail system), 61, 66, 68, 89, 90, 92,
128, 138
Armona, Matías de (brigadier), 178, 180,
184–95, 191, 198
Aróstegui, Martín de (director of the Real
Compañía), 10
Aróstegui, Martín Estéban de (governor
of Puerto Principe), 29, 33, 47, 52
Arriaga, Julián de (minister of the Indies)
90, 103, 109
Asiento (privilege to import slaves), 10
Asiento, the, 71, 99, 100, 122, 126, 132, 140,
161, 196; formed (1764), 64; and our
trade, 64, 68, 77–78, 95–96, 103–6,
114–15, 126–29, 133–39; and slave trade,
64, 78, 120–21, 131–39, 161; and con-
traband trade, 76–78; and smallpox,
78, 120–21; reorganized (1773), 103–6;
reorganized (1775), 127–29. See also
Compañía Gaditana de Negros
Ayans y Ureta, Juan de (governor of
Oriente), 97, 106, 116–20
Bahama Channel, 24, 47, 92
Bahamas, 56, 57, 76, 96, 126, 151, 156
Bahía Honda, 113, 169
Baltimore, 153, 158, 159
Baracoa, 35, 107, 114, 117, 131
Barbados, 56, 64, 114, 126, 130, 136, 148
Batabanó, 25, 43, 78, 80, 82, 84, 87, 89, 107,
111, 112, 124, 163
Bayajá (Bahiajá), 179, 180–83
Bayamo, 32, 35, 38, 43, 49, 74, 96, 97, 98,
100, 114, 124, 148, 203
Beaumarchais, Pierre Agustín Caron de
(director of the Asiento), 128–29, 130,
132, 140
Bejucal, 107
Beltrán de Santa Cruz y Mopox, Joaquín
de (Conde de Mopox), 187, 190–91
Biassou, Jorge (black auxiliary), 176, 180
Bilbao, 66, 76, 106, 127
Bonet, Juan Bautista (naval commander),
61, 100, 108–9, 144–46
Bourbon Reforms, 9, 18, 40, 58, 59, 60–64,
83
Bucareli, Antonio María (captain gen-
eral), 68, 74, 97, 98, 111, 113, 196, 199, 201;
300
•
index
mitigation eorts, 71, 72, 83, 87, 89–90,
168, 196; promoted, 99, 99
Cabañas (Oriente), 42, 44, 46, 48
Cabrera, Joaquín de (military ocer),
178, 180, 187
Cádiz, 19, 21, 64, 66, 76, 79, 95, 96, 106,
127, 128, 156, 157, 158, 162, 194, 197
Cagigal, Juan Manuel (Marqués de Casa
Cagigal, governor of Oriente), 65, 68,
70, 71, 74, 81
Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco Antonio
(Marqués de Casa Cagiga, captain
general), 26, 27, 34, 36, 37, 38, 44
Calenturas, 18, 22, 45, 46, 52, 54, 170,
183, 186
Calvario, 175
Calvo, Sebastián de (Marqués de Casa
Calvo, brigadier), 186–88, 191
Campeche, 23, 42, 87, 98, 117
Cap Français (present-day Cap Haitien),
31, 135, 136, 152, 158. See also Guarico
Caracas, 31, 32, 176, 179, 182
Cartagena de Indias, 21, 31, 37, 67, 117, 121
Casabe, 45, 49, 50, 62, 171
Casasola, Gaspar de, 177, 178, 180, 183
Castillo de la Cabaña, 146
Castillo de la Punta, 51, 53
Cathalan, Etienne (merchant), 127, 129–30
Cale, 10, 29, 30, 44, 45, 46, 56, 98, 148,
162–63
Ceronio, Stephen (factor for Willing and
Morris), 134, 135, 136, 139
Charles III (king of Spain), 20, 22, 60, 71,
79, 109, 123, 134, 135, 137, 138, 160, 197,
201; as Enlightened monarch, 12, 195–
96; as wartime monarch, 40, 143, 146,
151; initiates reforms, 58–59, 94, 121–22,
125–29, 140–41, 160, 161, 195–97; ascends
to throne, 63; mitigation eorts, 82–83,
89–90; death of, 155, 201
Charles IV (king of Spain), 20, 141, 161, 177,
180, 186–87, 190, 193, 197, 207
Charleston, S.C., 21, 76, 141, 142, 158, 186, 192
Cholera, 54
Chorrera River, 163–67
Climate change, 1, 2, 22, 193, 195
Cojímar River, 109–11, 166–67, 168, 170–71,
175
Compañía Gaditana de Negros, 71, 99,
100, 122, 126, 132, 140, 161, 196; formed
(1764), 64; and our trade, 64, 68,
77–78, 95–96, 103–6, 114–15, 126–29,
133–39; and slave trade, 64, 78, 120–21,
131–39, 161; and contraband trade,
76–78; and smallpox, 78, 120–21; re-
organized (1773), 103–6; reorganized
(1775), 127–29. See also Asiento, the
Consulado de la Habana, 160, 171, 188–91,
193, 194
Consulado de Mexico, 63, 139
Consulado de Santiago de Cuba, 160
Continental Congress, 126, 128, 129, 132,
139, 142, 143
Contraband, 7, 32, 34, 35–39, 42–43, 63, 67,
75–76, 88, 94, 96–97, 103, 136, 144, 195
Council of State, 186, 187, 190
Council of the Indies, 38, 66, 67, 79, 85, 89,
90, 95, 109, 122, 160
Crame (Cramer), Agustín (royal engi-
neer), 61
Critical juncture theory, 6, 20, 199, 202
Cuatro Villas. See Santa Clara
Cumaná, 78, 87, 99, 121
Curaçao, 35, 181
Dajabón, 177, 178, 179, 182, 185
Defense, 8–11, 22, 25
Dengue, 54, 182
Disaster studies, 5–8
Disease, 18, 20, 22, 26–27, 41, 48, 55, 98, 122,
178, 181, 188, 195
Dominica, 101, 102, 131, 132
Domino eect of disaster, 6–7, 126–32,
197, 200
Drought, 4, 5, 6, 7, 15, 41, 61, 68, 115–19,
123–26, 139, 142, 197, 199; in Mexico,
3, 93, 98, 103, 125, 157–58, 196, 197, 200;
index
•
301
in Oriente, 25, 26–27, 33–34, 97–98; in
Puerto Príncipe, 25, 28–29, 33–34, 124,
147–48; in Havana, 60, 68, 116, 163, 171;
island-wide, 68; empire-wide, 93, 98–
100, 103, 115, 125, 157–58; in Santa Clara,
98, 147–48, 162–63, 171–72; in Santiago
de Cuba, 100; in Matanzas, 115. See also
El Niño/La Niña cycle; Environmental
stress; Hurricanes
Du, James (factor), 95, 96
Du and Welsh, 127
Dutch, 9, 34, 35, 38, 69, 75
Dysentery, 18, 54, 182
East Florida, 144, 153, 154, 155–59, 194
Eduardo, Miguel (interpreter), 131–32, 134,
135, 136, 204
El Ferrol, 66, 106, 197
Eligio de la Puente, Juan José (treasury
ocial), 121–22, 123, 130, 135, 137, 138,
140, 141
El Morro (Havana), 23, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 83,
92, 145–46, 150
El Morro (Santiago de Cuba), 37, 42, 44,
45, 48, 99
El Niño/La Niña cycle, 1–5, 31, 59, 61, 93,
103, 115, 122, 162; eects of, 21–26, 28–29,
68–73, 97, 123–26, 171–75, 195–200. See
also Drought; Environmental stress;
Hurricanes
Enlightenment, 12, 13, 83, 195
Enrile, Gerónimo (Asiento factor), 95, 105,
128, 131, 134, 137
Enrile, José María (director of the
Asiento), 104–5, 128, 130
Environmental history, 5–6, 20
Environmental stress, 21–22, 61, 93, 119,
154, 195, 197; island-wide, 25–27, 68–75,
97, 103, 115–21, 123–26, 162–67, 171–75;
on Hispaniola, 20; in Oriente, 31–34,
42–45, 116–19; in Havana, 49–50,
163–67, 171–73; in Louisiana, 94; in
Caribbean, 144–50. See also Drought;
El Niño/La Niña cycle; Hurricanes
Espinola, Benito Antonio de (naval com-
mander), 23
Ferdinand VI (king of Spain), 40
Fevers, 18, 22, 41, 45–55, 58, 70, 98, 117–18,
147, 148, 178–83
Florida, 3, 5, 7, 10, 24, 36, 37, 60, 121, 130,
140, 197, 198, 200, 206
Flota, 9, 24, 139
Flour, 25, 39, 62, 67, 68, 71, 72, 76, 100,
101, 140, 161, 171, 197. See also Flour
trade
Flour trade: with Mexico, 29, 34, 62, 65,
76, 78–81, 94, 138, 142–43; with North
America, 29, 64, 80–82, 91, 95, 104–5,
107, 114–15, 126–27, 137–38, 140, 151–53,
162, 176–77, 181, 186, 189–92, 194–95;
with Jamaica, 29–30, 114–15, 130, 133,
134, 137, 138; linked to slave trade, 29–31,
64, 76–77, 94, 103–6, 114–15, 136, 140,
162; and emergency supply, 32–34, 65,
68, 74, 98; for troops, 43–44, 50, 143,
147, 149, 151, 176–77, 181; with Philadel-
phia, 53, 56–58, 78–79, 95, 96, 101, 103,
106, 107, 114, 132, 137, 143, 147, 189–90,
192, 197; to Santiago de Cuba, 75–81,
105–6, 114–15
Fonsdeviela, Felipe de (Marqués de la
Torre, captain general), 92, 99, 113, 116,
122–23, 134, 137, 138, 141, 201; mitigation
eorts, 100, 103, 106–11, 168, 199; espio-
nage eorts, 130–31
France, 11, 40, 60, 61, 66, 132, 142, 161, 196;
war against Spain, 20, 161, 176–88, 190;
alliance with Spain, 39
Francisco, Juan (black auxiliary), 176, 189,
184, 186–88
Free trade (comercio libre), 8, 19, 59, 63,
74, 75, 128, 138–43, 194, 196; in slaves,
161–62. See also Reglamento para el
comercio libre
French Revolution, 2, 8, 155, 176, 198
Fuertes, José (administrator of the mail
system), 167
302
•
index
Funes de Villalpando, Ambrosio (Conde
de Ricla, captain general), 61, 65, 67, 68,
107, 135
Gálvez, Bernardo de (Conde de Gálvez),
198, 199; as governor of Louisiana,
137, 138, 141; leads military campaigns,
144–47, 149, 150–51, 155; as captain
general of Cuba, 157, 158, 159
Gálvez, José de (minister of the Indies),
13, 122, 123, 128, 130, 134, 138, 141, 142,
146, 151, 158, 204
Gálvez, Matías de (military ocer), 151
García, Joaquín (president of Santo Do-
mingo), 176–79, 180, 182–85, 187, 198
Gardoqui, Diego de (consul in Philadel-
phia), 159, 177, 194
Gardoqui, José de (head of mercantile
house), 127
Gardoqui and Son, 127
Gibacoa, 175
Godoy, Manuel de (minister of war),
187, 190
Graon, Joseph (New England mer-
chant), 152–53, 158–59
Great Britain, 10, 11, 76, 122, 155, 196, 197;
war against Spain, 15, 35, 40–55, 66, 96,
99, 123, 142, 143–51, 154; relationship
with thirteen colonies, 126–28, 132, 200;
alliance with Spain, 176
Gremio de panaderos (bakers’ guild of
Havana), 115, 138
Grimaldi, Marqués de (minister of the
Indies), 68
Guadaloupe, 70, 76
Guanabacoa, 32, 49, 58, 84, 85, 109, 110,
163, 168, 175
Guantánamo Bay, 117
Guarico, 3, 130, 131, 134, 176, 179, 182–83,
188
Guaycabón, 42
Güemes y Horcasitas, Juan Francisco
(Conde de Revillagigedo, viceroy of
Mexico), 27, 34
Güines, 15, 111, 112, 172, 175
Gulf of Mexico, 5, 69, 71, 93, 124, 142, 143,
185, 205
Haitian Revolution, 2, 8
Hamilton, Alexander, 102; as George
Washington’s aide-de-camp, 142
Hasse, Thomas (priest), 155–58
Havana, 25, 29, 32, 35, 42, 98, 127, 131, 135,
138, 140, 148, 152, 153, 157, 195, 197–98;
siege, fall, and occupation of, 8, 15, 18,
22, 40–41, 47–58, 60, 61–68, 94, 117, 135,
137, 195; as military center, 8–9, 143–47,
149, 150, 176, 178, 180, 182, 187; hospitals
in, 19, 51, 53–55, 107, 172; as port, 23, 44,
46, 56, 57–58, 68, 79, 80, 90, 92, 95, 99,
105, 106, 114, 118, 143, 151, 154, 155–60,
189–91, 193–95; disease in, 26, 41, 53–55,
170; situado for, 27, 132; as administra-
tive center, 33, 34, 37, 39, 67, 73, 78, 81,
96, 97, 113, 115, 116, 132, 134; shortages
in, 50–52, 58, 71, 100, 101, 105–6, 135, 164,
171; hurricanes in, 82–90, 115–19, 124,
133, 152, 154–55, 156, 163–67, 185–86
Hincha, 178, 179, 184
Hispaniola, 9, 20, 23, 70, 100, 101, 130, 176,
182, 204
Historical climatology, 1, 2, 20, 199
Holguín, 35, 45, 98, 118, 148
Holland, 11, 66, 196
Hospitals, 18–19, 22, 44, 51–52, 56, 107, 117,
125, 172, 179, 183, 186
Huonny, Daniel (captain), 24–25
Hurricanes, 3, 6, 12–17, 41, 77, 93, 152,
188–89, 191, 193, 195, 196, 199, 202; in
Louisiana, 5, 61, 71–72, 101, 185, 197–98,
200; in Jamaica, 21–22, 69–70, 73–74,
82, 101, 118, 124; oshore, 23–25; ef-
fects of, 23–25, 26–29, 42–55, 69–71,
99–103, 107–11; in Santiago de Cuba,
28, 41, 45, 70, 101–2, 116–19, 124, 172–73;
in Oriente, 42–43, 45–55, 70; in Saint
Domingue, 69, 124, 150; Caribbean-
wide, 69–71, 131–32, 148–49; in Puerto
Rico, 70, 72, 101–3; in Matanzas, 82,
116, 124, 152, 172, 185; in Havana, 82–90,
index
•
303
115–19, 124, 133, 152, 154–55, 156, 163–67,
185–86; in Puerto Príncipe, 101, 149, 150;
island-wide, 123–26; in New Orleans,
124, 137, 144, 147, 149; eects on war
preparations, 143–46, 148–50
Illinois, 81, 94
Insurrections. See Rebellion, New Orleans;
Slave rebellion
Irigoyen, Pedro Pablo de (physician),
182–83
Isle of Pines, 87
Jagua, 48, 82, 89
Jamaica, 19, 36–37, 47, 65, 74, 76, 78, 88, 89,
96, 117, 126, 131, 135, 136, 140, 148, 150,
151; hurricanes in, 21–22, 69–70, 73–74,
82, 101, 118, 124; slave trade with, 29–30,
56, 64, 114–15, 120–21, 133, 134, 137; our
trade with, 29–30, 114–15, 130, 133, 134,
137, 138; slave rebellions in, 72–73, 75
Jaruco, 113, 175
Jesuits, 61, 85, 86, 87, 88, 173
Jesús del Monte, 49, 84, 107, 112, 164, 170,
175
Juan, Jorge (scientist), 13, 18, 21
Juana Méndez (Oüanaminthe), 177, 178,
179, 180
Junta de Fomento, 160, 171, 176
Juraguá, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49
Juraguacito, 42, 44
Kennedy, John (merchant), 77, 79, 95, 96
Keppel, George (Lord Albemarle, British
commander), 53, 55, 56, 65
Kingston, 36, 73, 97, 114, 133, 134, 136, 137,
150, 158
La Coruña, 66, 102, 106, 127, 197
Lanz de Casafonda, Manuel (royal ad-
viser), 104–5, 128
Las Casas, Luis de (captain general), 141,
155, 188–89, 191, 201; comparison to
other leaders, 168, 201; rejects mitiga-
tion eorts, 168–70, 173–75, 198–99
LeFevilliez, Pedro de (French com-
mander), 177, 178, 179
Leveling eect of disaster, 7, 117, 200
Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies), 11, 27
Lisundia, Domingo de (Marqués de Real
Agrado), 109–10
Lile Ice Age, 2–3
Lleonart, Juan de, 52, 71, 97, 118–19, 177,
180, 183–85, 191, 198
London, 56, 65, 66, 126, 153
Louisiana, 3, 7, 19, 74, 75, 81, 98, 151, 157,
200; hurricanes in, 5, 61, 71–72, 101, 185,
197–98, 200; resistance in, 60, 73, 74,
90–91, 94; our trade with, 100, 101, 137,
185–96
Madariaga, Juan Ignacio de (military
commander), 47, 48, 49, 50
Madariaga, Lorenzo de (governor of Ori-
ente), 28, 29, 33, 34, 39, 42, 43, 45, 48, 49
Madrid, 13, 21, 106, 108, 109, 123, 125, 127,
130, 132, 137, 150, 160, 162, 182, 186, 195
Malaria, 54
Malvinas, 12
Managua, 112, 113, 148, 172, 175
Martínez de Yrujo, Carlos (Marqués
de Casa Yrujo, Spanish consul), 186,
194–95
Martinique, 23, 69, 70, 72, 74, 76, 99, 130,
149, 150
Matanzas, 16, 58, 109, 113, 150, 175; disease
in, 52–53, 116; hurricanes in, 82, 116, 124,
152, 172, 185; drought in, 115
Medicine, 17–18, 22, 51, 54, 98
Mexico, 66, 99, 109, 151, 176; drought in,
3, 93, 98, 103, 125, 157–58, 196, 197, 200;
situado (military subsidy) from, 9,
27, 157–58; our trade, 29, 34, 62, 65,
76, 78–81, 94, 138, 142–43, 190. See also
NewSpain
Mexico City, 11, 63, 151
Ministry of the Indies, 64, 77, 94, 95, 96,
103, 104, 105, 121, 138, 158
Miralles, Juan de (merchant), 121, 129,
140–43, 147, 150, 151, 205