Lin S.D. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual

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MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Fluoride 4.0 4.0 Bone disease (pain and Water additive

tenderness of the bones); which promotes

Children may get mottled strong teeth;

teeth erosion of

natural deposits;

discharge from

fertilizer and

aluminum

factories

Lead zero TT

; Infants and children: Delays Corrosion of

Action in physical or mental household

Level development; children could plumbing

=0.015 show slight deﬁcits in systems; erosion

attention span and learning of natural

abilities deposits

Adults: Kidney problems;

high blood pressure

Mercury 0.002 0.002 Kidney damage Erosion of

(inorganic) natural deposits;

discharge from

reﬁneries and

factories; runoff

from landﬁlls

and croplands

Nitrate 10 10 Infants below the age of Runoff from

(measured as 6 months who drink water fertilizer use;

nitrogen) containing nitrate in excess leaching from

of the MCL could become septic tanks,

seriously ill and, if untreated, sewage; erosion

may die. Symptoms include of natural

shortness of breath and deposits

blue-baby syndrome

Nitrite 1 1 Infants below the age of Runoff from

(measured 6 months who drink water fertilizer use;

as nitrogen) containing nitrite in excess leaching from

of the MCL could become septic tanks,

seriously ill and, if untreated, sewage; erosion

may die. Symptoms include of natural

shortness of breath and deposits

blue-baby syndrome

Selenium 0.05 0.05 Hair or ﬁngernail loss; Discharge from

numbness in ﬁngers or petroleum

toes; circulatory problems reﬁneries; erosion

of natural

deposits;

discharge from

mines

Public Water Supply 325

(Continued)

TABLE 5.1 (continued )

MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Thallium 0.0005 0.002 Hair loss; changes in blood; Leaching from

kidney, intestine, or liver ore-processing

problems sites; discharge

from electronics,

glass, and drug

factories

Organic Chemicals

Acrylamide zero TT

Nervous system or blood Added to water

problems; increased risk during sewage/

of cancer wastewater

treatment

Alachlor zero 0.002 Eye, liver, kidney, or spleen Runoff from

problems; anemia; increased herbicide used

risk of cancer on row crops

Atrazine 0.003 0.003 Cardiovascular system or Runoff from

reproductive problems herbicide used

on row crops

Benzene zero 0.005 Anemia; decrease in blood Discharge from

platelets; increased risk factories; leaching

of cancer from gas storage

tanks and

landﬁlls

Benzo(a)pyrene zero 0.0002 Reproductive difﬁculties; Leaching from

(PAHs) increased risk of cancer linings of water

storage tanks

and distribution

lines

Carbofuran 0.04 0.04 Problems with blood, Leaching of soil

nervous system, or fumigant used

reproductive system on rice and alfalfa

Carbon zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased Discharge from

tetrachloride risk of cancer chemical plants

and other

industrial

activities

Chlordane zero 0.002 Liver or nervous system Residue of

problems; increased risk banned

of cancer termiticide

Chlorobenzene 0.1 0.1 Liver or kidney problems Discharge from

chemical and

agricultural

chemical

factories

2,4-D 0.07 0.07 Kidney, liver, or adrenal Runoff from

gland problems herbicide used

on row crops

326 Chapter 5

MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Dalapon 0.2 0.2 Minor kidney changes Runoff from

herbicide used

on rights of way

1,2-Dibromo-3- zero 0.0002 Reproductive difﬁculties; Runoff/leaching

chloropropane increased risk of cancer from soil

(DBCP) fumigant used on

soybeans, cotton,

pineapples, and

orchards

o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 0.6 Liver, kidney, or circulatory Discharge from

system problems industrial

chemical

factories

p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 0.075 Anemia; liver, kidney, or Discharge from

spleen damage; changes industrial

in blood chemical factories

1,2-Dichloroethane zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from

industrial

chemical factories

1,1- 0.007 0.007 Liver problems Discharge from

Dichloroethylene industrial

chemical factories

cis-1,2- 0.07 0.07 Liver problems Discharge from

Dichloroethylene industrial

chemical factories

trans-1,2- 0.1 0.1 Liver problems Discharge from

Dichloroethylene industrial

chemical factories

Dichloromethane zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased Discharge from

risk of cancer drug and

chemical factories

1,2- zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from

Dichloropropane industrial

chemical factories

Di(2-ethylhexyl) 0.4 0.4 Weight loss, liver problems, Discharge from

adipate or possible reproductive chemical factories

difﬁculties

Di(2-ethylhexyl) zero 0.006 Reproductive difﬁculties; Discharge from

phthalate liver problems; increased rubber and

risk of cancer chemical factories

Dinoseb 0.007 0.007 Reproductive difﬁculties Runoff from

herbicide used

on soybeans and

vegetables

Public Water Supply 327

(Continued)

TABLE 5.1 (continued )

MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Dioxin zero 0.00000003 Reproductive difﬁculties; Emissions from

(2,3,7,8-TCDD) increased risk of cancer waste inciner-

ation and other

combustion;

discharge from

chemical factories

Diquat 0.02 0.02 Cataracts Runoff from

herbicide use

Endothall 0.1 0.1 Stomach and intestinal Runoff from

problems herbicide use

Endrin 0.002 0.002 Liver problems Residue of

banned

insecticide

Epichlorohydrin zero TT

Increased cancer risk, and Discharge from

over a long period of time, industrial

stomach problems chemical

factories; an

impurity of some

water treatment

chemicals

Ethylbenzene 0.7 0.7 Liver or kidneys problems Discharge from

petroleum

reﬁneries

Ethylene dibromide zero 0.00005 Problems with liver, stomach, Discharge from

reproductive system, or petroleum

kidneys; increased risk reﬁneries

of cancer

Glyphosate 0.7 0.7 Kidney problems; Runoff from

reproductive difﬁculties herbicide use

Heptachlor zero 0.0004 Liver damage; increased Residue of

risk of cancer banned

termiticide

Heptachlor zero 0.0002 Liver damage; increased Breakdown of

epoxide risk of cancer heptachlor

Hexachlorobenzene zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from

reproductive difﬁculties; metal reﬁneries

increased risk of cancer and agricul-

tural chemical

factories

Hexachloro- 0.05 0.05 Kidney or stomach problems Discharge from

cyclopentadiene chemical factories

Lindane 0.0002 0.0002 Liver or kidney problems Runoff/leaching

from insecticide

used on cattle,

lumber,

gardens

328 Chapter 5

MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Methoxychlor 0.04 0.04 Reproductive difﬁculties Runoff/leaching

from insecticide

used on fruits,

vegetables,

alfalfa, livestock

Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2 0.2 Slight nervous system effects Runoff/leaching

from insecticide

used on apples,

potatoes, and

tomatoes

Polychlorinated zero 0.0005 Skin changes; thymus Runoff from

biphenyls (PCBs) gland problems; immune landﬁlls;

deﬁciencies; reproductive or discharge of

nervous system difﬁculties; waste chemicals

increased risk of cancer

Pentachlorophenol zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from

increased cancer risk wood preserving

factories

Picloram 0.5 0.5 Liver problems Herbicide runoff

Simazine 0.004 0.004 Problems with blood Herbicide runoff

Styrene 0.1 0.1 Liver, kidney, or circulatory Discharge from

system problems rubber and

plastic factories;

leaching from

landﬁlls

Tetrachloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased Discharge from

risk of cancer factories and dry

cleaners

Toluene 1 1 Nervous system, kidney, or Discharge from

liver problems petroleum

factories

Toxaphene zero 0.003 Kidney, liver, or thyroid Runoff/leaching

problems; increased risk from insecticide

of cancer used on cotton

and cattle

2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.05 0.05 Liver problems Residue of

banned herbicide

1,2,4- 0.07 0.07 Changes in adrenal glands Discharge from

Trichlorobenzene textile ﬁnishing

factories

1,1,1- 0.20 0.2 Liver, nervous system, or Discharge from

Trichloroethane circulatory problems metal degreasing

sites and other

factories

1,1,2- 0.003 0.005 Liver, kidney, or immune Discharge from

Trichloroethane system problems industrial

chemical factories

Public Water Supply 329

(Continued)

TABLE 5.1 (continued )

MCL Potential health Sources of

MCLG

or TT

effects from contaminant in

Contaminant (mg/L)

(mg/L)

ingestion of water drinking water

Trichloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased Discharge from

risk of cancer metal degreasing

sites and other

factories

Vinyl chloride zero 0.002 Increased risk of cancer Leaching from

PVC pipes;

discharge from

plastic factories

Xylenes (total) 10 10 Nervous system damage Discharge from

petroleum

factories;

discharge from

chemical factories

Radionuclides

Alpha particles none

15 Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural

— picocuries deposits of certain

zero per Liter minerals that are

(pCi/L) radioactive and

may emit a form

of radiation

known as alpha

radiation

Beta particles none

4 Increased risk of cancer Decay of natural

and photon — millirems and man-made

emitters zero per year deposits of

certain minerals

that are

radioactive and

may emit forms of

radiation known

as photons and

beta radiation

Radium 226 and none

5 pCi/L Increased risk of cancer Erosion of

Radium 228 — natural deposits

(combined) zero

Uranium zero 30 mg/L Increased risk of cancer, Erosion of

as of kidney toxicity natural deposits

12/08/03

NOTES

Deﬁnitions:

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)—The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in

drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best available treatment

technology and taking cost into consideration. MCLs are enforceable standards.

Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG)—The level of a contaminant in drinking water

below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety

and are nonenforceable public health goals.

Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (MRDL)—The highest level of a disinfectant allowed

in drinking water. There is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for

control of microbial contaminants.

330 Chapter 5

Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal (MRDLG)—The level of a drinking water

disinfectant below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reﬂect

the beneﬁts of the use of disinfectants to control microbial contaminants.

Treatment Technique—A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in

drinking water.

Units are in milligrams per liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted. Milligrams per liter are

equivalent to parts per million.

EPA’s surface water treatment rules require systems using surface water or groundwater

under the direct inﬂuence of surface water to: (1) disinfect their water, and (2) ﬁlter their water

or meet criteria for avoiding ﬁltration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the

following levels:

■

Cryptosporidium: (as of 1/1/02 for systems serving >10,000 and 1/14/05 for systems serving

<10,000) 99% removal.

■

Giardia lamblia: 99.9% removal/inactivation.

■

Viruses: 99.99% removal/inactivation.

■

Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are removed/inactivated,

Legionella will also be controlled.

■

Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 nephelolometric turbidity

units (NTU); systems that ﬁlter must ensure that the turbidity go no higher than 1 NTU

(0.5 NTU for conventional or direct ﬁltration) in at least 95% of the daily samples in any

month. As of January 1, 2002, turbidity may never exceed 1 NTU, and must not exceed

0.3 NTU in 95% of daily samples in any month.

■

HPC: No more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter.

■

Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (Effective Date: January 14, 2005): Surface

water systems or (GWUDI) systems serving fewer than 10,000 people must comply with the

applicable Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule provisions (e.g. turbidity

standards, individual ﬁlter monitoring, Cryptosporidium removal requirements, updated

watershed control requirements for unﬁltered systems).

■

Filter Backwash Recycling: The Filter Backwash Recycling Rule requires systems

that recycle to return specific recycle flows through all processes of the system’s

existing conventional or direct ﬁltration system or at an alternate location approved by

the state.

More than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that collect

fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliform-

positive per month.) Every sample that has total coliform must be analyzed for either fecal

coliforms or E. coli if two consecutive TC-positive samples, and one is also positive for E.coli fecal

coliforms, system has an acute MCL violation.

Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be

contaminated with human or animal wastes. Disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in these

wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. These pathogens

may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely compromised

immune systems.

Although there is no collective MCLG for this contaminant group, there are individual MCLGs

for some of the individual contaminants:

■

Trihalomethanes: Bromodichloromethane (zero); bromoform (zero); dibromochloromethane

(0.06 mg/L). Chloroform is regulated with this group but has no MCLG.

■

Haloacetic acids: Dichloroacetic acid (zero); trichloroacetic acid (0.3 mg/L). Monochloroacetic

acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid are regulated with this group but have no

MCLGs.

MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act.

Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.

Lead and copper are regulated by a treatment technique that requires systems to control the

corrosiveness of their water. If more than 10% of tap water samples exceed the action level,

water systems must take additional steps. For copper, the action level is 1.3 mg/L, and for lead

is 0.015 mg/L.

Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or manufacturer’s

certiﬁcation) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems,

the combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed the levels speciﬁed, as

follows:

■

Acrylamide = 0.05% dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent)

■

Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)

SOURCE: www.epa.gov/OGWDW/regs.html, 2007

Public Water Supply 331

for treatment process improvements. The SDWA Amendments prohibit

the uses of lead pipes, lead solder, and lead ﬂux.

Under the SDWA, the National Drinking Water Contaminant

Candidate List (CCL) originally published on March 2, 1998 that listed

60 contaminants (50 chemicals or chemical groups and 10 microbial

contaminants). The SDWA also requires the US EPA to review each pri-

mary standard at least once every 6 years for revision if needed. On April

2, 2004, the US EPA listed 50 contaminants (41 chemicals or chemical

groups plus 9 microbials) as a draft CCL2.

How MCLGs are developed. MCLGs are set at concentration levels at

which no known or anticipated adverse health effects would occur, allow-

ing for an adequate margin of safety. Establishment of a speciﬁc MCLG

depends on the evidence of carcinogenicity from drinking water expo-

sure or the US EPA’s reference dose (RfD), which is calculated for each

speciﬁc contaminant. The drinking water standards are developed as fol-

lows (Federal Register, 1991).

The RfD is an estimate, with an uncertainty spanning perhaps an

order of magnitude of a daily exposure to the human population (includ-

ing sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without an appreciable risk

of deleterious health effects during a lifetime. The RfD is derived from

a no- or lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (called a NOAEL or LOAEL,

respectively) that has been identiﬁed from a subchronic or chronic sci-

entiﬁc study of humans or animals. The NOAEL or LOAEL is then

divided by the uncertainty factor to derive the RfD.

332 Chapter 5

TABLE 5.1a National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations

Contaminants Concentration

Aluminium 0.05 to 0.2 mg/L

Chloride 250 mg/L

Color 15 (color units)

Copper 1.0 mg/L

Corrosivity Non-corrosive

Fluride 2.0 mg/L

Foaming Agents 0.5 mg/L

Iron 0.3 mg/L

Managanese 0.05 mg/L

Odor 3 threshold odor number

pH 6.5–8.5

Silver 0.10 mg/L

Silfate 250 mg/L

Total dissolved solids 500 mg/L

Zinc 5 mg/L

NOTE: National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary standards)

are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects

(such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in

drinking water. EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not require

systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards.

SOURCE: US EPA, 2000

The use of an uncertainty factor is important in the derivation of the

RfD. The US EPA has established certain guidelines (shown below) to

determine which uncertainty factor should be used:

10—Valid experimental results for appropriate duration of human

exposure.

100—Human data not available. Extrapolation from valid long-term

animal studies.

1000—Human data not available. Extrapolation from animal stud-

ies of less than chronic exposure.

1 to 10—Additional safety factor for use of a LOAEL instead of a NOAEL.

Other—Other uncertainty factors are used according to scientiﬁc

judgment when justiﬁed.

In general, an uncertainly factor is calculated to consider intra- and inter-

species variations, limited or incomplete data, use of subchronic studies,

signiﬁcance of the adverse effect, and the pharmacokinetic factors.

From the RfD, a drinking water equivalent level (DWEL) is calculated

by multiplying the RfD by an assumed adult body weight (generally 70 kg)

and then dividing by an average daily water consumption of 2 L/d. The

DWEL assumes the total daily exposure to a substance is from drinking

water exposure. The MCLG is determined by multiplying the DWEL by

the percentage of the total daily exposure contributed by drinking water,

called the relative source contribution. Generally, EPA assumes that the

relative source contribution from drinking water is 20% of the total expo-

sure, unless other exposure data for the chemical are available. The cal-

culation below expresses the derivation of the MCLG:

(5.13a)

(5.13b)

MCLG ⫽ DWEL ⫻ drinking water contribution (5.13c)

For chemicals suspected as carcinogens, the assessment for nonthreshold

toxicants consists of the weight of evidence of carcinogenicity in humans,

using bioassays in animals and human epidemiological studies as well as

information that provides indirect evidence (i.e. mutagenicity and other

short-term test results). The objectives of the assessment are (1) to

determine the level or strength of evidence that the substance is a

human or animal carcinogen and (2) to provide an upper-bound estimate

DWEL 5

NOAEL or LOAEL 3 body weight, kg

sUFd 3 sWC, L/dd

5 mg/L

DWEL 5

RfD 3 body weight, kg

daily water consumption sWCd, L/d

5 mg/L

RfD 5

NOAEL or LOAEL

uncertainty factor sUFd

5 mg/kg body weight/d

Public Water Supply 333

334 Chapter 5

of the possible risk of human exposure to the substance in drinking water.

A summary of US EPA’s carcinogen classiﬁcation scheme is:

Group A—Human carcinogen based on sufﬁcient evidence for epi-

demiological studies.

Group B1—Probable human carcinogen based on at least limited evi-

dence of carcinogenicity to humans.

Group B2—Probable human carcinogen based on a combination of suf-

ﬁcient evidence in animals and inadequate data in humans.

Group C—Possible human carcinogen based on limited evidence of

carcinogenicity in animals in the absence of human data.

Group D—Not classiﬁable due to lack of data or inadequate evidence

of carcinogenicity from animal data.

Group E—No evidence of carcinogenicity for humans (no evidence for

carcinogenicity in at lease two adequate animal tests in different

species or in both epidemiological and animal studies).

Establishing the MCLG for a chemical is generally accomplished in

one of three ways depending upon its categorization (Table 5.2). The

starting point in EPA’s analysis is the EPA’s cancer classiﬁcation (i.e. A,

B, C, D, or E). Each chemical is analyzed for evidence.

EPA’s policy is to set MCLGs for Category I contaminants at zero. The

MCLG for Category II contaminants is calculated by using the

RfD/DWEL with an added margin of safety to account for cancer effects,

or is based on a cancer risk range of 10

⫺5

to 10

⫺6

when noncancer data

are inadequate for deriving an RfD. The MCLG for Category III con-

taminants is calculated using the RfD/DWEL approach.

The MCLG for Category I contaminants is set at zero because it is

assumed, in the absence of other data, that there is no known thresh-

old. Category I contaminants are those contaminants for which EPA has

determined that there is strong evidence of carcinogenicity from drinking

TABLE 5.2 EPA’s Three⫺Category Approach for Establishing MCLGs

Category Evidence of carcinogenicity via ingestion MCLG setting approach

I Strong evidence considering weight of Zero

evidence, pharmacokinetics, and exposure

II Limited evidence considering weight of RfD approach with

evidence, pharmacokinetics, and exposure added safety margin or

⫺5

to 10

⫺6

cancer

risk range

III Inadequate or no animal evidence RfD approach