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, , ?

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    :      

   .   ,   ,  ,

   .  ,   , 

.         

       . ,  ,   ,

,   ,   ,    

, .  – -

, .

          

    ()   . , 

      , ,    – 

. . 

, , 

. 

 ,       . 

 ,      ,  

.     ,    "

, ".

, , , 

   , , ""  

   ,  .      

:  ,  () ,    

. , , 

, . , , 

, , .

         

,  ,  ,    . .  :

    ,     

   –   . ,  

, , .

        

    .   

, , -

 . ,  ,  ,   

   .  ,    

  ,       –  

.  - . 

  ,       . 

          

 «     ,  

     ». 

, .

 ,  ,  ,    

. , , .

 –        –

, . 

    ,      

 – .

 16. 

 40-. XIX .  (1818–1883)   (1820–

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1895)      

, , , . 

, 

    ,     ,

.

     , .   . ,

, , ,

, .       -

.

        –  

 ()

  ,     

, , .



     ,    

.

1. 

         

.

     –  ,  

  ,      "  ",

 "" .

", 

, , : "

   ,     

". -

 .        

       .  

, "        

... ...".



       ( 

  ).       ;   

      

.

2. 

          -

       . 

         "

", 

, .

.

, , 

     ,     

.  – , , 

. : 

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, 

   ,     

, . .  –

, .

: ,  (

  ),  ,   

, , 

. .

         

,    .    

 (, 

. .) .

        , 

. 

. 

    ""    

,  "" 

,   ,   

 () .

  , 

     ,  

, .

       

  

. 

, 

: "". , 

         

, 

. , 

.

          

 (1871).        " 

". , 

, , 

     .   

,      ,   ,

 "    ". , 

. , 

     "   

".       ,    

."

3. 

, 

       ,     –

,      . 

www.InetLib.Ru - !

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   40–-90- . XIX .   

       ,  

 ,   . .       

 ;        

 .       

        

.

   ,       .

, , 

   .   ,   

  ,  : 1) 

 – ; 2)  ()

; 3) . 

     ,      

  ,      , 

, , 

, .

     ( )  : 

    ,  

 (. . 

)  ;       ("

 ").      

  ,       

.

 ,  

         : ", 

. , , 

   .     ,

, 

. 

, ,

. , 

  .  . ,

         

,     ,     

:   ,       ".    

.

 –      –   

       . 



. 

, , , , ,

  :        -

 ,    .     

 .       

 XIX  XX .

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 17. 

 XIX –  XX .

1. . 

 XIX 

 (1818–1892). 

 ,  "       ", "  " 

".

     ,   .

,  ,        -

 .  – 50-. XIX . 

  " ",    

 ()     ,   

  .        (

 ),  ",     

". . 

    50- .  .    

 ".     ,    

, ,  

  .       , 

 ,   .       

       ,    ,

.

           

, . 



. , -

 .   ,    " 

: , , . .". 

 . 

 "". , 

: "     : 

;            

, . . ,  –  . 

".

  ,        ,

, . 

. , 

, .  "".

, ,  "

",      .    :

".  ( "")

, , ,

 –  – . .

, ,  "" , 

, ; , 

www.InetLib.Ru - !

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, , , ". 

      ,   

.   ,  , 

. . 

: " – ".

      .   –  

.     ,   ,

    ;   –    .  

  .     –  , 

. . 

  ,   : "  

    ,   , . .

 ".     

,  XIX .

  ,    ,

  .       , 

: "   :     

  ,   , ,  ".

,  (

), , , 

   . ,        , 

: "". 



.        , 

.

        

.        , .  

    .    (  

  ", "  ")     ,   

. 

.

    .     . ", –

 , –    ".   

 ,   ,    .   

, . 

  (),     .    – 

 .    ,      

.         

: "     ,   ,  

, , , ".

 ""  (

 )         

  ,    , 

    .      

,        .  –    

, , , 

, 

 , . ,   ,  "

www.InetLib.Ru - !

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 ,    !"   

 ", !".

    ,  

       .  

  ,     

 .  ,      

 .     :     

  , ,    

, , .

  (  )  

.  ,        , 

   . "   ,    

". 

, , . , 

        , "  

,      ".   , 

, 

   "" .     

    .      

. , , "".

 

  .      XIX .   

  .      

,       .  

 (, ), 

, ,  ,

 ("") : ",

,  , , ".   "  

", "" . .

2. . 

       

        

(1790–1859),  20-. XIX . 

.         " 

"        .

,  –  "", .

    "  ,  

" . .

.  ,      

      ,   

      (  ). 

        ,

    ,   .  

, 

.

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         

 (), . , . , 

 (), 

, ,

, ,  –  –

    ,   ,  ,    

      .  , 

,   ,    

         

. , , , 

,   . ,      

.

       ,  

 –   , ,    , ",

, ,

  ".  ,  ,  ,   , 

 (). 

, 

  ,        

.

, , ,

, 

       ( )

.



, , 

        .   

       ,  ,  

, .

        

  "  ".     

      ,   

   ,      

        –    

 –  , 

. 

.

        " 

"         

  (, , ) , 

         

.

, 

. , 

        ,     

 (. . 

).

www.InetLib.Ru - !

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 () 

 ,        ("

,   ").  XX .     

,     , , 

.

3. . 

   (1844–1900) –      

. , , 

,    ,  " ", "  ", " 

", "", "" .

, , ,  ,   ,

 , ,  , ,   , 

,           .

   , , –

, – , , : ,

   "  ", . .      

, . .".

           

 ,      .     – 

,  – "". 

.

  " ", ,  , : "

 " –   .  .

 "" –  . "" – 

 –      (   ,  

 ).  " " –     ( 

  ...).  ""   –   

 ()".

.

, , – , 

 .    ,   .   

 ( , ),      

    ,  ,  ,  ,

.

 –

  ( ,  )    (, , ,

).

, , , ; 

   –  ,   ,  .   ,

 "" , .  – 

 ,       , 

. 

     )    

    ,     

.

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, ,  – 

.    

 (, . .), 

.

        

: , 

      

.

      ,  , 



,        ,

   . "       

, – , – 

  ,      

".

    ,  

 – , 

,    ,   , .  – 

  ,       

,  – , , . 

         ,   

       

.

      ,   

   .   "" ,  ,

  ,       

" : 1)  – ; 2) , 

     –  ,    (, ,  

  ); 3)    . " , 

, –, – ; 

   ,  ,     

".

       ,  

, .

      –  

. 

   .       . 

 "  "    .

     .    ,

   ,    , 

,     ,     

         –

 ,    ,   ,  

  , – ,     

, ".

  ,   ,  . 

, , ,  

,    ,    , 