Roberts A.D. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: from 1905 to 1940
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3 CHRISTIANITY
notable studies:
on
West Africa,
by
Turner, Peel, Webster,
Baeta, Haliburton, Shank, Bureau (1971), Paulme; on East and
southern Africa, Welbourn
and
Ogot, Daneel
and
Sundkler
(1976).
The use of African sources, both oral and written, has also
distinguished some
of
the most significant studies
of
African
Christianity in the mission-connected churches during this period
(e.g. Taylor, N. Smith, van Slageren, Pirouet, Tasie, Tuma). They
have also been used in biographies of leading African Christians
(E.
W. Smith (p. 912), Ayandele, Hymans (p. 910)) and in analyses
of mission education (J. Anderson, Kipkorir (p. 978), Shepherd);
other studies
in
this field are listed
in
regional bibliographies.
Detailed historical studies of African Catholicism in the twentieth
century are still rather rare. Miiller with his use of Divine Word
archives is valuable on Togo for the period before 1914, likewise
Storme and Kratz on early aspects of some missions in the Congo;
Linden (1974 and 1977) has made excellent use of White Fathers
and other sources, and Waliggo's thesis
is
outstanding
for
the
wealth and range of his oral and documentary materials. African
Christianity in this period must also be seen as part of a wider
and much longer process of religious change in Africa. Among
historians, Ranger has most notably drawn attention to several
aspects
of
this dimension (1972 and 1975), Bureau (1962) and
Bhebe have presented pic neer monographs, and some studies by
anthropologists are of particular significance (Murphree, Horton,
Wilson, Sangree, Janzen and MacGaffey). Although most of the
major studies by modern African theologians were published after
this period, several are of importance for historians (e.g. Mbiti,
Setiloane), and the impact of Christianity is a major theme in the
literature of African poets and novelists, many of whom were the
recipients of missionary education during this period.
4. ISLAM
This bibliography, like the associated chapter,
is
focused
on
sub-Saharan Africa: materials on North Africa and the Sudan are
listed
in
relation
to
chapters
6
and 15. By contrast with
the
nineteenth century, our period has received little attention from
historians
of
Islam
in
black Africa,
and the
collection
and
preservation
of
relevant primary source materials
has
been
correspondingly neglected. (Even
in
North Africa, the colonial
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
officials who described Arabic libraries were seldom interested in
contemporaneous accounts in Arabic of European occupation, or
early exchanges between Muslim populations and Europeans.) It
is likely that many Arabic manuscripts survive in private hands.
Glimpses of the potential value of such material can be obtained
from the 'Fonds Shaykh Mousa Kamara', dating from 1920-45
(catalogued
in
Diallo et al.), the private library
of
Shaykh Sidia
Baba (d. 1927) in Mauritania (partly catalogued by Massignon and
now maintained
by the
shaykh's sons), papers
of
the Kano
merchant Umaru Falke (1893-1962) (described by Mohamed and
Hay and now housed at Northwestern University with the Paden
collection
(cf.
Saad)); and Swahili and Arabic materials
at the
University
of
Dar
es
Salaam (catalogued
by
Allen). Relevant
materials have also been discussed or listed in the journal
Kiswahili
and its predecessors, the
Kesearch Bulletin
of the Centre of Arabic
Documentation, Ibadan,
the
Interim Reports
of
the Northern
History Research Scheme, Zaria, and the
Kesearch Review
of
the
Institute of African Studies, Legon, Ghana. A collection of Somali
poetry (Andrzejewski and Lewis) and a study of the subject (Said
Samatar) are listed
on
pp. 909-912; listed here are studies
of
Islamic verse in Hausa (Hiskett) and Wolof (Samb). As yet, no
systematic effort has been made to catalogue writing from south
of the Sahara that was published in North Africa, nor have the
Arabic presses in sub-Saharan Africa been described.
Books and articles on Islam south of the Sahara have been listed
by Zoghby. Pearson's Index
Islamicus,
covering contributions
to
periodicals and other collective publications,
is
issued quarterly
and from 1976 monographs have been included; several con-
solidated lists have been published. There
are
also relevant
bibliographies
for
South Africa (Hampson), Tanzania (Nimtz),
Zaire (Rossie), the Ahmadiyya movement (Wintoki) and Murid
literature (Diop).
There are few monographs specifically
on
twentieth-century
Africa, and studies which deal with Islam on a regional or national
basis are seldom informed by the Arabic materials noted above.
We thus know more about historical processes with which Islam
was associated than about change within Islam, the faith, in our
period. Sociological studies help to fill this gap, but of its nature
this literature tends towards particularism, with little emphasis on
historical process. Much the most useful general essay
is the
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4 ISLAM
introduction by I. M. Lewis to
Islam
in
tropical
Africa (1966), but
only eight pages are devoted to our period. Readers of Triming-
ham's various regional surveys should be wary of a set of
concepts (Islam as 'alien' to Africa, ethnic variation in Islam,
racial determinants upon Islamic practice) that have consistently
flawed this author's prodigious contributions. For discussion of
major currents of change in the wider Islamic world during our
period, the reader is referred to studies by Hourani and Kerr.
The attitudes and policies towards Islam of colonial administra-
tions,
in matters of politics, education and law, can be documented
from a wide range of contemporaneous accounts and scholarly
studies. It was during the first two decades of this century that
Islam was most feared by colonial officials as a possible basis for
concerted opposition to their rule, and most later studies rely
heavily on research that dates from the first half of our period.
Cruise O'Brien provides a good analysis of policy in French West
Africa up to 1914; there are also brief studies of British policy
in the Sudan (Warburg, p. 994) and Nyasaland (Greenstein). On
French West Africa the leading official expert, Paul Marty,
published
a
series of reports on Islamic leaders and their followings
in each colony; some of these first appeared between 1911 and
1921 in the
Revue du monde
musulmane,
and the last (on Niger) came
out in 1931. In the 1920s two other colonial officials, Andre and
Tomlinson, emphasised the continuing dangers of Islam. One
problem which greatly vexed colonial governments, millen-
arianism, has been well treated by Clarke (1980) in the West
African context. The incorporation of Islamic legal systems into
colonial government has been methodically surveyed by Ander-
son; useful notes on Islamic legal practice during our period
appear in Schacht's articles on northern Nigeria and East Africa;
see also Ubah. Islamic education in colonial Africa has as yet
received scant attention: Hubbard (in Brown and Hiskett, p. 882)
looks briefly at northern Nigeria, which has also been the focus
of studies of the impact upon Muslims of Western education: cf.
Graham (p. 897), Tibenderana (p. 942) and Gbadamosi (1967);
see also Fisher (1961).
Regional, national or local studies tend to deal with Islam in
our period either in terms of the aftermath of nineteenth-century
movements or as the prelude to nationalism after the Second
World War; rarely is Islam the focus of historical accounts of our
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
own period. Regional studies
of
Islam
in
West Africa, each of
which include chapters on the colonial era, include Trimingham
(1959,
1962), Gouilly, Clarke (1982) and Moreau; the two latter
are the most helpful. There
is
only one study devoted to Islam
throughout
a
colonial territory: that by Audouin and Deniel on
the Upper Volta, though our period
is
well treated
in
Cruise
O'Brien's account (1975) of Islam in Senegalese politics. Triaud
has written articles on Niger (p. 929) and the Ivory Coast; see also
Adeleye and Fika (pp. 938-9) on reactions
to
British intrusion
in northern Nigeria. Gbadamosi (1978) and Ryan focus on Yoruba
communities, and Paden and Tahir on Kano; Works's study of
Hausa communities in Chad centres on the
hdjj
(on which see also
Birks).
Sanneh briefly treats Jahanke communities
in
the early
twentieth century, and Bravmann's book
on
West African
art
includes an excellent study of Islam in northern Ghana and the
Ivory Coast. The origins, influence and growth of the Ahmadiyya
in West Africa have been thoroughly documented
by
Fisher
(1963).
Trimingham's surveys of the Sudan (p. 994) and Ethiopia
include chapters
on the
colonial era;
see
also
an
article
by
Crummey, Trimingham's East African study, and books by Lewis
on Somaliland (p. 987) and Salim (p. 979) and el-Zein
on
the
Kenya coast. Becker made
a
pioneering study
of
Islam
in
East
Africa; more recently, Alpers, in Ranger and Kimambo (p. 900)
and Aziz have specifically focused on the expansion of Islam into
the East African interior, and Walji (p. 977) has studied
the
Isma'llls in Tanganyika.
The Islamic brotherhoods are the subject of the largest single
body of scholarship that pertains directly to our period. During
the colonial era these studies tended to take the form of inventories
of Sufi brotherhoods
in
particular areas, such
as
Willis
on
the
Sudan (p. 994), Lewis on Somaliland, Chailley et al. on French-
speaking West Africa, and Andre and Drague on North Africa.
Studies by historians and social scientists who have moved beyond
these inventories include the classic works on the Sanusiyya by
Evans-Pritchard and Ziadeh. Abun-Nasr has traced the expansion
of the Tijaniyya with special reference
to
West Africa.
The
brotherhood which has received most'attention
in
sub-Saharan
Africa is the Muridiyya in Senegal, a consequence of the Murids'
role
in
nationalist politics; major studies include
Sy,
Cruise
O'Brien (1971), Dumont and Copans. A particularly significant
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4 ISLAM
populist offshoot of the Tijaniyya in this period, the Hamalliyya,
has been the subject of
a
book by Alioune Traore and an account
based on colonial administrative reports by Alexandre, in Rotberg
and Mazrui (p. 883). Our period is well covered in Hiskett's study
of recent developments in West African Sufi communities, which
refers particularly to Hausa adherents of the Tijaniyya. Most
recently, Brenner
has
studied the thought of one Tijani who joined
the Hamalliyya. In East Africa the brotherhoods have received
less attention, but those in Tanzania in this century have been well
studied by Nimtz (1980), while Martin has surveyed the life of
Shaykh Uways, one of the most influential Sufi leaders on the
coast.
The preponderance of articles over monographs on Islam
during this period, and the general paucity of material in contrast
to that on Christian missions, indicates the limited extent of
research on Islam during the first forty years of this century. Part
of the colonial inheritance which has much influenced the
historiography is the adoption of ethnic, regional or national
perspectives; one topic in great need of attention is Pan-Islamic
movements and sentiments during our period. To tackle such
questions, much attention must first be devoted to recovering and
cataloguing manuscript and printed material on Islam
in
twentieth-
century Africa; only then will we be able to appreciate the full
significance of Islamic expansion in Africa during that period.
5. AFRICAN CROSS-CURRENTS
The bibliography for this chapter is divided into two sections, for
primary and secondary sources. The former comprise works by
Africans and other blacks written during our period, together
with the most relevant autobiographies. Books published only in
African languages are not included. Even so, the list is far from
being comprehensive: it is intended only to draw attention to the
more substantial and representative publications. Few actual
books were produced by black African writers during our period.
Non-fiction usually appeared in the form of pamphlets, which
often originated in addresses or newspaper articles; fiction com-
monly took the form of novellas rather than novels. For such
material, only the most detailed bibliography could avoid being
misleading, and it is unfortunate that no such work exists. Brief
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
selections from authors of our period are included in an anthology
by Dathorne and Feuser. Several Africans, including Azikiwe,
Caluza and Kenyatta, contributed
to
Nancy Cunard's polemical
anthology Negro (p. 886), as did Padmore (who gave her much
help).
Newspapers to which Africans contributed have been very
incompletely preserved. Howell lists various aids to locating such
material; guidance is also provided in studies of the press referred
to below, and in bibliographical essays for regional chapters.
Books by Africans on political questions came in our period
chiefly from South Africa, British West Africa and Ethiopia. Most
such books are now very scarce, but extended extracts, along with
related documents, have been gathered by Langley. In the list for
the present chapter,
the
mainstream
of
the African National
Congress
in
South Africa is represented by Jabavu and Plaatje;
see also Mahabane (p. 963). Nzula wrote in Moscow.
In
British
West Africa, ideas about nationalism were developed in the Gold
Coast by Attoh-Ahuma, Casely Hayford, Mensah Sarbah, de Graft
Johnson and Danquah (who returned from London to become
a state councillor
in
Akim Abuakwa, where
his
brother was
paramount chief). Curiously, none
of
the Lagos elite wrote on
politics
at
book-length; their pamphlets are represented here by
the Rev. Patriarch J. G. Campbell's demand for African advance
in the civil service. Solanke was the Yoruba founder of the West
African Students' Union in London, where he settled; Azikiwe,
an Ibo, made
an
academic study
of
Liberia while teaching
at
Lincoln University
in
the USA. Blyden,
a
Liberian by choice,
produced his last work
in
retirement
in
Sierra Leone.
In
East
Africa,
we
need note only Kayamba, from Tanganyika,
and
Mockerie, from Kenya; the latter, with Kenyatta, vainly sought
to represent the Kilcuyu before
a
parliamentary committee
in
London
in
1930—1.
In
Ethiopia, Gebre Hey wet Baykedagn (tr.
Fusella) and Afewerq Gebre both criticised Menelik in
exile,
while
the international crisis of the 1930s prompted
a
thesis by Work
and
a
symposium
by
Melaku Beyene. From French-speaking
Africa, the only writers to be noted here are Gueye and Lamine
Senghor. Among black writers of the diaspora, the West Indians
Scholes and Padmore both settled
in
London; Ras Makonnen
recalls the Pan-African scene there
in
the later 1930s. Many of
Marcus Garvey's papers have recently been republished, along
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5 AFRICAN CROSS-CURRENTS
with related contemporary material. Partington has compiled
a
bibliography for DuBois.
Collective biography
was
an important medium for the assertion
of cultural solidarity:
it
was practised in South Africa by Mweli
Skota and Mancoe, and in British West Africa by Attoh-Ahuma,
Sampson and Deniga; Hutchison compiled a poetic variant of the
genre. Few individual biographies were published: see examples
by Jabavu
in
South Africa, Mwase
in
Nyasaland, Mademba
in
French West Africa and Asfa Yilma
in
exile from Ethiopia.
However, much history was written by West Africans: traditions
were recorded
by
Samuel Johnson, Egharevba, Tamakloe and
Njoya, among others; relations with the British were reviewed
by Sarbah and de Graft Johnson wrote an inspirational textbook.
Elsewhere, the principal African historians were J. H. Soga (South
Africa), Kagwa (Uganda) and the Ethiopian chronicler Guebre
Sellassie (p. 983). Norris presents two histories from Mauritania.
Duse Mohammed's history of modern Egypt may be noted here
in view of his association with black Africa and his editorship in
London of the African
Times and Orient Review
(1912-14, 1917-18;
reprinted 1973). The leading African writers
on
African social
institutions were Soga (South Africa), Abdallah and Chibambo
(Nyasaland), Kagwa and Nyabongo (Uganda), Kenyatta (Kenya),
Danquah (Gold Coast),
the
Yoruba authors Ajisafe, Delano,
Fadipe and Solanke, and the French-speaking Dim Delobsom,
Hazoume, Mamby Sidibe, M'Ba and Quenum; the black official
Felix Eboue, from French Guyana, was also an amateur ethno-
grapher. Several Africans published collections of proverbs and
folk-tales;
it is
enough here
to
list Ephraim Amu's pioneering
work in notating the music
of
African songs. Dictionaries were
compiled in the Gold Coast by Tamakloe, in Soudan by Moussa
Travele, in Cameroun by Moume-Etia and in Gabon by Raponda-
Walker (a priest who also published many articles on botany
in
the 1930s). Tovalou-Houenou, in Paris, mingled amateur philo-
logy with cultural Africanism.
Little fiction
by
Africans appeared
in
European languages
during our period. Among works in English, we need note only
Mofolo and Plaatje (South Africa), Ntara (Nyasaland), Nyabongo
(Uganda) and Casely Hayford (Gold Coast). The two last wrote
veiled autobiography rather than novels;
the
same
is
true
in
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
French-speaking Africa of Diallo, but novels were written there
by Couchoro, Diop, Hazoume and Maran (a black official from
Martinique). In Portuguese, the only relevant novelist was Assis
Junior. Black South African poetry from
our
period
is
well
represented
in
the anthology by Couzens and Patel. In German
East Africa, Abdul Karim wrote a Swahili verse chronicle about
the Maji Maji rebellion;
in
Ethiopia, Eadie collected several
poems in 1913 which extol modernity, exemplified by Japan; and
Bankole Awoonor-Renner, from
the
Gold Coast, celebrated
communism in verse. References to the oral poetry of the period
must here be confined
to
that
of
Isaiah Shembe (see Sundkler,
p.
964), Muhammad 'Abdallah Hasan (Andrzejewski and Lewis),
and praise poems for five Tswana chiefs (Schapera).
Autobiography is
a
rich source for the intellectual history of
black Africa. The three examples listed here (Matthews, Nkrumah,
and the Somali text edited by Pankhurst) are primarily relevant
to this volume for their accounts of experience overseas. African
autobiographies were collected
in the
1930s
by
Perham and
Westermann. Other works are listed
in
regional bibliographies:
for Senegal
(Gueye),
Nigeria (Akiga, Awolowo, Azikiwe, Okafor-
Omali, Smith), South Africa (Kadalie, Sachs), Southern Rhodesia
(Vambe), Kenya (Thuku, Kindy), Ethiopia (Haile Sellassie,
Gidada), Sudan (Babikr Badrl).
Much of the secondary literature on which this chapter is based
is listed
in
bibliographies for regional chapters. There has been
no systematic research on black people in Britain during the first
half
of
the twentieth century since Little's pioneering study,
and no large-scale work has been published on the migration of
Africans to other countries overseas in this period. A forthcoming
collection by Page surveys African experience of the First World
War. The patterns
of
movement stimulated
by
the search
for
education may be elicited from books by Ashby, Mayhew and
Murray (pp. 887-8) and Jones and Shepherd (pp. 898, 901), and
from regional studies
of
French West Africa (Bouche), Sierra
Leone (Sumner), South Africa (Kerr), East Africa (Goldthorpe)
and Uganda (Carter). Roelker describes a Kenyan's education in
South Africa and England. For African students
in
the USA,
consult King (1971), studies of Aggrey by Smith and King (1969),
of A. B. Xuma
by
Ralston
and of
Banda
by
Short;
and the
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5 AFRICAN CROSS-CURRENTS
autobiographies of Azikiwe (p. 938), Matthews and Nkrumah.
Bond has written a history of Lincoln University.
There is more guidance on language policy than on language
use in our period, but see Afigbo (1981) (p. 938) and Whiteley
(p.
975). For the press, whether African or non-African, one must
turn to regional studies, varying greatly in aim and quality, for
Senegal (Boulegue), Dahomey (Codo Coffi, Lokossou), Togo
(Guillaneuf), the Gold Coast (Jones-Quartey), Nigeria (Omu),
Belgian Congo (Berlage), Angola (Lopo), Mozambique (Dias,
Friedland), South Africa (Switzer, Cutten), Southern Rhodesia
(Gale),
Northern Rhodesia (Smyth), Uganda (Scotton), Tangan-
yika (Pipping-van Hulten, Westcott).
Only three historians, Amar Samb (p. 904), Cornevin and
Jadot, have attempted surveys of African writing in our period
which encompass all genres. Relevant studies of African writers
of non-fictional prose are confined to Senegal (Diop, p. 903; and
Amar Samb), Hausa theologians (Hiskett, p. 904), Yorubaland
(Law) and Buganda (Rowe, Twaddle). There is however a
considerable literature on
'
creative writing'; it includes a biblio-
graphy (Jahn and Dressier) and a biographical dictionary
(Herdeck), though both represent English work better than
French. Gerard has made indispensable surveys of work in
African languages, and there are also studies of literature in Arabic
(Amar Samb (p. 904), Goody), Hausa (Hiskett (p. 904)), Amharic
(Kane, Molvaer) and Xhosa (Jordan). Peires notes the power of
missionaries over Africans seeking publication. English-language
literature in South Africa has been sensitively studied by Couzens.
There are guides to work in French (Blair, Kesteloot) and
Portuguese (Hamilton); Lyall (p. 958) provides a contemporary
account of poets in the Cape Verde islands.
Much less attention has been paid to the history of the
performing arts; little has been written on the history of oral
poetry and song. Tracey led the way in southern Mozambique,
though his work has recently been reappraised by Vail and White,
who have themselves done research on the lower Zambezi. There
is a book by Said Samatar on Somali poetry, and an article by
Mwakasak on Nyakyusa oral poetry; Opland discusses the Xhosa
poet Mqhayi. African music receives extensive coverage in the
New Grove dictionary of music and musicians (1980, 20 vols.), but
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS
the syncretic music
of
our period
is
very unevenly treated;
for
South Africa,
see
Malan's
Encyclopaedia
(p. 963). A
tentative
beginning was made
by
Kirby,
in
Schapera (p. 964),
but it was
left
to
Coplan
to
reveal the rich history
of
African entertainment
in Johannesburg. Jones
and
Ranger illuminate respectively
musical and social aspects
of
dance modes
in
eastern and Central
Africa.
In
the Gold Coast, Nketia made
a
musicological study
of
'highlife'; Collins placed it in a wider historical context; and Bob
Johnson's story has been told
by
Sutherland.
On the
theatre
in
Nigeria,
see
Adedeji.
One
attempt
to
adapt African music
for
mission use
is
described
by
Jans.
On the plastic arts, there
is an
outline survey by Mount,
a
few
useful pages
by
Willett,
and
Bravmann's important study
of
Islamic influences in West Africa (p. 903); otherwise, the relevant
literature deals only with carving among the Yoruba (Carroll) and
Lega (Biebuyck), painting
in
the Belgian Congo (Perier) and
the
Kamba souvenir trade (Elkan).
It
must
be
hoped that Vansina's
new book will prompt others
to
remedy this neglect.
Popular critiques
of
colonial rule
are
best known through
studies
of
popular movements
in the
Rhodesias
and
East Africa
(Cross, Ranger) and the Belgian Congo (Joset, Mulambu, Sikitele,
Vansina, Verbeek); some studies
of
Christian independency (e.g.
Sundkler
on
South Africa)
are
also illuminating. Literate elites
have received due attention: there
is a
general survey
by
Kilson
in Gann and Duignan (1970; p. 883), while much may be learned
from studies of Senegal (Johnson), Sierra Leone (Spitzer), Nigeria
(Mann), Angola (Samuels and Wheeler), Johannesburg (Couzens
and Bonner,
in
Marks and Rathbone), Tanganyika (IlifFe). There
are several relevant biographies, most notably
of
Plaatje (Willan)
and Chilembwe
in
Nyasaland (Shepperson and Price) but also
of
Kenyatta (Murray-Brown), Panda Farnana
in
the Belgian Congo
(Bontinck), Atangana
in
Kamerun (Quinn), Macaulay
in
Nigeria
(Tamuno)
and
Danquah
in the
Gold Coast (Twumasi).
Bio-
graphical collections
are
still more useful:
for
West Africa
(Macmillan), the Gold Coast (Ephson), South Africa (Gerhart and
Karis,
in
Karis and Carter), Tanganyika (IlifFe), Kenya (King and
Salim);
see
also
the
series edited
by
Julien
(p. 883) and the
Encyclopaedia Africana (p. 882). The growth
of
the professions
among black Africans
is
best documented
for
Nigeria:
see
Adewoye on lawyers and Fajana
on
teachers; studies
of
the press
in West Africa have already been mentioned. There
is no
need
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