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In Situ Testing and Field Instrumentation 28-17

At least three dial gages or other devices for measurement of displacements (e.g., LVDTs) should be

used to measure the displacement at the pile head with time, following the application of each load

increment. Each sensor is afﬁxed to a reference beam that should be protected from sunlight and

temperature changes, and whose supports must be placed sufﬁciently far from the test and anchor piles

so it does not move during the test. Measurements of the horizontal displacement of the pile cap are also

recommended to verify that the load is properly applied.

Instrumented static load tests have the general objective of establishing the distribution of the load

along the pile or drilled shaft, and determining what fraction of the applied load is carried by side friction

and what fraction by base resistance for any given displacement of the pile head. To obtain the load

distribution along the pile shaft, the axial strain at different depths is determined and then the axial stress

and load are calculated with the appropriate modulus for concrete or steel based on the type of pile. The

load carried by side friction between the surface and any depth is equal to the difference between the

total load at the pile head and the normal load at the section of the pile at that depth. Measurement of

the pile deformation can be accomplished by using telltales (Fig. 28.10), strain gages, or Mustran cells

(Fig. 28.11) (Crowther, 1988). Telltales are particularly convenient for use in drilled shafts, in which they

are installed inside polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubes that isolate them from the surrounding concrete. This

ensures that they will move freely and the displacement measured at the pile head with a dial gage (or

other displacement sensor) will be equal to the displacement at the tip of the telltale. Dunnicliff (1988)

raises a number of concerns regarding the use of telltales and suggests that they should not be used as

the primary measurement system, but rather be used in combination with strain gages. Surface mounted

strain gages are the most common solution for deformation measurement in the case of steel piles, while

embedment strain gages are used for both concrete-driven piles and drilled shafts. The strain gages in

these cases are attached directly to a rebar at appropriate intervals. A Mustran (multiplying strain

transducer) cell consists of a short bar with a number of electrical resistance strain gages attached that

are protected by a plastic sheath ﬁlled with an inert gas to avoid moisture intrusion. Mustran cells are

occasionally used in instrumented tests of drilled shafts. Figure 28.12 shows how a Mustran cell or a

telltale can be connected to a rebar before concrete placement. Note that strain gages and Mustran cells

directly provide the strain at the location where they are mounted. In the case of telltales, an average

strain between two telltale tips is computed from the ratio in the difference in displacements to the

difference in depths.

FIGURE 28.9 Set-up for pile static load test. (From ASTM D 1143 - 81 (Reapproved 1987). Standard method for

piles under static compressive load. With permission.)

TEST BEAMS

STEEL PLATE

DIAL GAGES

HYDRAULIC JACK

TEST PLATE

REFERENCE BEAM

ANCHOR PILE

TEST PILE

28-18 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

For open-ended pipe piles, base capacity is due to both annulus and plug resistances, and in large

projects, with a large number of piles, it may be attractive to accurately separate the two. Paik et al. (2002)

describe in detail how this can be accomplished though the use of logically placed strain gauges.

Deﬁning Terms

Benchmark — reference for measurement of vertical displacements using surveying methods.

Borehole extensometer — a device used to monitor the change in distance between two or more points

along the axis of a borehole.

Bourdon pressure gage — a gage for measuring hydraulic pressure, consisting of a curved tube that,

when pressurized, uncoils by an amount directly related to the pressure.

Electrical resistance strain gage — a conductor whose electrical resistance changes as it is deformed.

Extensometer — a device that gives the distance between two points (see also surface extensometer and

borehole extensometer).

Inclinometer — device used for measuring lateral displacement that runs down inside a cased borehole.

In-situ tests — tests performed to determine soil properties in the ﬁeld.

Instrumentation — the collection of devices and the way they are arranged and linked to measure

quantities deemed of interest in a particular project.

FIGURE 28.10 Possible arrangement of telltales to determine load distribution along shaft of a drilled shaft. (From

Crowther, C.L. 1988. Load Testing of Deep Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, New York. With permission.)

.30Z

.60Z

.90Z

TELLTALE 3

@ C.90Z

TELLTALE 2

@ .60Z

PILE DEPTH Z

TELLTALE 1

@ .30Z

INDICATOR

DIAL GAGES

In Situ Testing and Field Instrumentation 28-19

FIGURE 28.11 Mustran cell. (From Crowther, C.L. 1988. Load Testing of Deep Foundations. John Wiley & Sons,

New York. With permission.)

FIGURE 28.12 Attachment of Mustran cell or telltale to rebars in a drilled shaft. (From Crowther, C.L. 1988. Load

Testing of Deep Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, New York. With permission.)

~ 2

~ 8

LEAD WIRE

HOSE CLAMP

RUBBER HOSE

STRAING GAGES

CELL COLUMN

TIES

REINFORCE STEEL

DYWIDAG BARS

SECURE CELLS

TO REINFORCE

WITH HOSE CLAMPS

SILICON

RUBBER SEAL

1/2′′ O.D. SMOOTH

STEEL BAR

11/2′′ SCH. 40

PVC PIPE

3′′ × 3′′ × 1/8′′ STEEL PLATE

REINFORCING STEEL

MUSTRAN CELL

WIRING TO EXTEND BEYOND

TOP OF CAISSON OR PILE

12′′ 6′′

3′′

28-20 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Instrumented static load tests — when said of a deep foundation, the measurement of displacements

or strains at different levels in the deep foundation element as load is applied at the pile head

(see also static load tests).

Load cells — devices used to measure load.

LVDT — the linear variable differential transformer, a device consisting of a central magnetic core and

two coils used to measure displacements.

Manometer — a U-tube ﬁlled with two ﬂuids, used to measure the pressure at their interface.

Measuring points — points where measurements are to be taken using surveying techniques.

Mustran cells — multiple strain transducers cells, devices consisting of a bar with strain transducers

attached, used to obtain strain measurements inside drilled shafts or concrete piles.

Piezometer — device used to measure hydraulic pressure.

Pressure cell — cell used to measure total stresses inside a soil mass or at soil-concrete or soil-steel

interface.

Reference monument — a reference for horizontal displacement measurements.

Sensor — a device that allows the measurement of a certain quantity at a point.

Settlement plate — plate that is embedded in a soil mass at a depth where the vertical displacements

are to be determined.

Static load test — when said of a deep foundation, the measurement of the displacement at the pile

head corresponding to a sequence of loads applied also at the pile head.

Strain gage — a gage used to measure strain (term is often used to refer to an electrical resistance strain

gage – see deﬁnition above).

Surface extensometer — a device used to monitor the change in distance between two points located

on the surface of the ground or of a structure.

Te lltale — a steel rod or bar placed inside a structure, whose purpose is to determine the displacement

at the location where its tip is located.

Tiltmeter — a device to measure the rotational component of a displacement.

Tr ansducer — a device that transforms one energy type (such as mechanical) into another (such as

electrical or pneumatic).

Vibrating wire transducer — a transducer that relies on measuring the natural frequency of a ten-

sioned wire to determine a strain.

References

ASTM D 1143 - 81 (reapproved 1987). Standard method for piles under static compressive load.

ASTM D 3441 - 86. Standard method for deep, quasi-static, cone and friction-cone penetration tests of

soils.

ASTM D 4719 - 87. Standard method for pressuremeter testing in soils.

Baguelin, F., Jezequel, J.F., and Shields, D.H. 1978. The Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering. Tr ans.

Te ch. Publications. Clausthall- Zellerfeld, Germany.

Baligh, M.M. and Levadoux, J.N. 1980. Pore Pressure Dissipation after Cone Penetration. Research Report

R80–11, MIT, Cambridge, MA.

Baligh, M.M., et al. 1981. The piezocone penetrometer. Presented at the Proceedings of Symposium on

Cone Penetration Testing and Experience, ASCE National Convention, St. Louis.

Bandini, P. and Salgado, R. 1998. Design of Piles Based on Penetration Tests. Presented at the 1st

International Conference on Site Characterization, ISC ‘98, 964–974, vol. 2, Atlanta.

Bandini, P. and Salgado, R. 2002. Evaluation of liquefaction resistance of clean and silty sands based on

CPT cone penetration resistance, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., in press.

Bolton, M.D. 1986. The strength and dilatancy of sands, Géotechnique, 36(1), 65–78.

Burland, J.B and Burbidge, M.C. 1985. Settlement of foundations on sand and gravel, Proc. Inst Civ. Eng.,

part I, vol. 78, 1325–1381.

In Situ Testing and Field Instrumentation 28-21

Clark, B.G. 1995. Pressuremeters in Geotechnical Design, Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow.

Crowther, C.L. 1988. Load Testing of Deep Foundations, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

De Ruiter, J. 1971. Electric penetrometer for site investigation, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, vol. 97,

no. SM2, February.

Dunnicliff, J. 1988. Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitory Field Performance, John Wiley & Sons, New

Yo r k .

Fahey, M. 1998. Deformation and in situ stress measurement, in Geotechnical Site Characterization, Mayne

and Robertson, Eds., 1, 49–68

Fretti, C., LoPresti, D., and Salgado, R. 1992. The research dilatometer: in-situ and calibration test results,

Rivista Italiana Geotecnica, vol. XXVI, no. 4, 237–243, October.

Hughes, J.M.O., Wroth, C.P., and Windle, D. 1977. Pressuremeter tests in sands, Geotechnique, vol. 27,

455–477.

Jamiolkowski, M., Ladd, C., Germaine, J., and Lancellotta, R. 1985. New Developments in Field and

Laboratory Testing of Soils. Presented at the Proceedings XI ICSMFE, San Francisco.

Ladd, C.C. 1990. Stability evaluation during staged construction, J. Geotech. Eng., 117 (4), 540–615.

Ladd, C.C., Foott, R., Ishihara, K., Schlosser, F., and Poulos, H.G. 1977. Stress-deformation and strength

characteristics: SOA report. Proc. 9th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 2, 421–494.

Lee, J. and Salgado, R. 1999. Determination of pile base resistance in sands, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.

ASCE, 125(8), 673–683, August.

Lee, J. and Salgado, R. 2000. Analysis of calibration chamber plate load tests, Can. Geotech. J., 37(1),

14–25, February.

Lee, J. and Salgado, R. 2002. The estimation of the settlement of footings in sand, Int. J. Geomech., 2(1).

Mair, R.J. and Wood, D.M. 1987. Pressuremeter Testing - Methods and Interpretation. Butterworths, London.

Manassero, M. 1992. Finite cavity expansion in dilatant soils: loading analysis, discussion, Geotechnique,

42, no. 4, 649–654.

Marchetti, S. 1980. In situ test by ﬂat dilatometer, J. Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE, vol. 106, no. GT3, 299–321,

March.

Mitchell, J. K. 1988. New developments in penetration tests and equipment, in Penetration Testing, ISOPT-1,

De Ruiter, J., Ed., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, vol. 1, 245–261.

Mitchell, J.K and Brandon, T.L. 1998. Analysis and use of the CPT in earthquake and environmental

engineering, in Geotechnical Site Characterization, Mayne and Robertson, Eds., 1, 69–95.

Mitchell, J. K. and Tseng, D-.J. 1989. Assessment of liquefaction potential by cone penetration resistance,

In Proceedings of the H. Bolton Seed Memorial Symposium, Duncan, J.M., Ed., 2, 335–350.

Ortigão, J.A.R. and Almeida, M.S.S. 1988. Stability and deformation of embankments on soft clay, in

Handbook of Civil Engineering Practice, Chereminisoff, P.N., Chereminisoff, N.P., and Cheng, S.L.,

Eds., Technomic Publishing, New Jersey, vol. III, 267–336.

Paik, K., Salgado, R., Lee, J. and Kim, K. 2002. Instrumented load tests on open- and closed-ended pipe

piles in sand. INDOT-FHWA Joint Transportation Research Program, Purdue Univ., Project SPR-

2361, Final Report.

Peck, R.B. 1969. Advantages and limitations of the observational method in applied soil mechanics:

Rankine lecture, Géotechnique, 19(2), 171–187.

Poulos and Davis. 1990. Pile Foundations Analysis and Design, Robert F. Krieger Publishing Co, Malabor,

FL.

Richart, F.E., Jr., Woods, R.D., and Hall, J.R., Jr. 1970. Vibrations of Soils and Foundations, Prentice Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Robertson, P.K., and Campanella, R.G. 1985. Liquefaction potential of sands using CPT, J. Geotech. Eng.

Div. ASCE, 111(GT3), 384–403.

Robertson, P.K. and Campanella, R.G. 1986. Guidelines for use, interpretation, and application of the

CPT and CPTU. Soil mechanics series no. 105, Department of Civil Engineering, The University

of British Columbia.

28-22 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D., and Rice, A. 1986. Seismic CPT to measure in-situ shear

wave velocity soil mechanics, J. Geotech. Eng., 112, 791–804.

Salgado, R., Boulanger, R., and Mitchell, J.K. 1997(a). Lateral stress effects on CPT liquefaction resistance

correlations, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE, 123(8), August, 726–735.

Salgado, R. and Mitchell, J. K. 1994. Extra-terrestrial soil property determination by CPT, in Proceedings

of the Eighth International Conference of the International Association for Computer Methods and

Advances in Geomechanics, Siriwardane, H. and Zaman, M.M., Eds., vol. 2, 1781–1788, Morgan-

town, May.

Salgado, R., Mitchell, J. K., and Jamiolkowski, M.B. 1997(b). Cavity expansion and penetration resistance

in sands, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., ASCE, 123(4), April, 344–354.

Salgado, R., Mitchell, J. K., and Jamiolkowski, M.B. 1998. Chamber size effects on penetration resistance

measured in calibration chambers, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE, 124(9), Sep., 878–888.

Salgado, R. and Randolph, M.F. 2001. Cavity expansion in sands, Int. J. Geomech., 1(2), April.

Schmertmann, J.H. 1970. Static cone to compute static settlement over sand, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.

ASCE, 96(3), 1011–1043.

Schmertmann, J. H. 1986. Suggested method for performing the ﬂat dilatometer test, Geotech. Testing J.

ASTM, 9 (2), June, 93–101.

Schmertmann, J.H., Hartman, J.P., and Brown, P.R. 1978. Improved strain inﬂuence factor diagrams,

J. Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE, 104(8), 1131–1135.

Seed, H.B., Tokimatsu, K., Harder, L.F., and Chung, R. 1985. Inﬂuence of SPT procedures in soil lique-

faction resistance evaluations, J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE, vol. 111, No. GT3, 458–482.

Seed, R.B. and Harder, L.F. 1990. SPT-based analysis of cyclic pore pressure generation and undrained

residual strength, in J.M. Duncan, Ed., Proceedings of the H. Bolton Seed Memorial Symposium, 2,

351–376.

Sinﬁeld, J.V. and Santagata, M.C. 1999. Investigations for the characterization of contaminated sites,

Invited Lecture, XVII Geotechnics Conference of Torino, Nov. 23–25, Torino, Italy.

Skempton, A.W. 1986. Standard penetration test procedures and the effects in sands of overburden

pressure, relative density, particle size, aging and overconsolidation, Géotechnique, 36, (3), 425–447.

Stark, T.D., and Olson, S.M. 1995. Liquefaction resistance using CPT and ﬁeld case histories, J. Geotech.

Eng. ASCE, 121(12), 865–869.

Stroud, M.A. 1975. The standard penetration test in insensitive clays and soft rocks, Proc. Eur. Symp.

Penetration Testing, 2, 367–375.

Yu, H.S. 1990. Cavity expansion theory and its application to the analysis of pressuremeters, Thesis

submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford.

Yu H.S., Herrmann, L.R., and Boulanger, R.W. 2000. Analysis of steady cone penetration in clay, J. Geotech.

Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE, 126(7), 594–605.

Yu H.S. and Mitchell J.K. 1998. Analysis of cone resistance: review of methods, J. Geotech.Geoenviron.

Eng. ASCE, 124(2), 140–149.

Further Information

Books

The books by Dunnicliff, Hanna, and Hunt are excellent references to devices and procedures of ﬁeld

instrumentation. Pile load tests are better addressed in more speciﬁc publications, such as Crowther’s

book. For instrumentation of dynamic or vibratory problems, a good starting point is Richart et al. There

has been much recent research on the interpretation of in situ tests, so it is best to review recent journal

papers if that is the speciﬁc interest.

ASTM has standards for the use of many of the devices discussed in this chapter. A volume is published

every year with standards for geotechnical engineering.

In Situ Testing and Field Instrumentation 28-23

Journals

Geotechnical engineering journals are a good source for new improvements in the instruments and

techniques, as well as for case histories where instrumentation has been used. Journals in English include

the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering of ASCE, Géotechnique of the Institute of

Civil Engineers of Great Britain, The Canadian Geotechnical Journal, the Journal of Soil Testing of ASTM,

and Soils and Foundations of Japan. Some foreign journals publish papers both in the native language of

the country where the journal is published and in English. The Rivista Italiana di Geotecnica of Italy and

Solos e Rochas of Brazil often carry interesting papers on in situ tests and ﬁeld instrumentation.

Catalogs and Other Publications by Manufacturers

Catalogs and other publicity material of companies manufacturing instruments, as well as reference

manuals for the instruments, are a good source of information, general and speciﬁc. Some companies

manufacturing instrumentation devices include the Slope Indicator Company (Sinco) of Seattle, Wash-

ington; Durham Geo of Stone Mountain, Georgia; Geokon of Lebanon, New Hampshire; Geotest of

Evanston, Illinois; Omega of Stamford, Connecticut; Phoenix Geometrix of Mountlake Terrace, Wash-

ington; and Dresser Industries of Newtown, Connecticut.

Also of interest are periodicals such as Experimental Stress Analysis Notebook of the Measurements

Group, Inc., of Raleigh, North Carolina. They carry current information on transducers and other devices,

as well as articles on the general subject of instrumentation and materials testing.

Hydraulic

Engineering

J. W. Delleur

Purdue University

29 Fundamentals of Hydraulics

D.A. Lyn

Introduction • Properties of Fluids • Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatics • Fluids in Non-Uniform

Motion • Fundamental Conservation Laws • Dimensional Analysis and Similitude • Velocity

Proﬁles and Flow Resistance in Pipes and Open Channels • Hydrodynamic Forces on

Submerged Bodies • Discharge Measurements

30 Open Channel Hydraulics

Aldo Giorgini and Donald D. Gray

Deﬁnitions and Principles • Balance and Conservation Principles • Uniform Flow • Composite

Cross Sections • Gradually Varied Flow • Water Surface Proﬁle Analysis • Qualitative Solution

of Flow Proﬁles • Methods of Calculation of Flow Proﬁles • Unsteady Flows • Software

31 Surface Water Hydrology

A. Ramachandra Rao

Introduction • Precipitation • Evaporation and Transpiration • Inﬁltration • Surface Runoff •

Flood Routing Through Channels and Reservoirs • Statistical Analysis of Hydrologic Data

32 Urban Drainage

A. Ramachandra Rao, C.B. Burke, and T.T. Burke, Jr.

Introduction • The Rational Method • The Soil Conservation Service Methods • Detention

Storage Design

33 Quality of Urban Runoff

Ronald F. Wukash, Amrou Atassi, and Stephen D. Ernst

Urban Runoff • Quality of Urban Runoff • Water Quality Regulations and Policies • Modeling •

Best Management Practices

34 Groundwater Engineering

J.W. Delleur

Fundamentals • Hydraulics of Wells • Well Design and Construction • Land Subsidence •

Contaminant Transport • Remediation • Landﬁlls • Geostatistics • Groundwater Modeling

35 Sediment Transport in Open Channels

D.A. Lynn

Introduction • The Characteristics of Sediment • Flow Characteristics and Dimensionless

Parameters; Notation • Initiation of Motion • Flow Resistance and Stage-Discharge

Predictors • Sediment Transport • Special Topics

36 Coastal Engineering

Guy A. Meadows and William L. Wood

Wave Mechanics • Ocean Wave Climate • Water Level Fluctuations • Coastal Processes • Coastal

Structures and Design

37 Hydraulic Structures

Jacques W. Delleur

Introduction • Reservoirs • Dams • Spillways • Outlet Works • Energy Dissipation Structures •

Diversion Structures • Open Channel Transitions • Culverts • Bridge Constrictions • Pipes •

Pumps

-2

The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

38 Simulation in Hydraulics and Hydrology

T.T. Burke Jr., C.B. Burke, and

A. Ramachandra Rao

Introduction • Some Commonly Used Models • TR-20 Program • The HEC-HMS Model •

The HEC-RAS Model • XP-SWMM

39 Water Resources Planning and Management

J.R. Wright and M.H. Houck

Introduction • Evaluation of Management Alternatives • Water Quantity Management

Modeling • Data Considerations

IV.1 Introduction

lobal freshwater resources comprise 1 million cubic miles. Most of this water is in groundwater,

less than 1/2 mile deep within the earth. Of this resource, only 30,300 cubic miles reside in

freshwater lakes and streams. However, all of this water is in a continuous movement known as

the “hydrologic cycle.” The dynamic nature of this movement is quite variable. The response time of

urban runoff is minutes to hours and the average residence time of atmospheric moisture is a little more

than 9 days, while the global average residence time of freshwater in streams is approximately 10 days,

and that of groundwater is 2 weeks to 10,000 years.

As the ﬁeld of hydraulic engineering enters the third millennium, more noticeable water resources

impacts on society are expected. These impacts result from increasing world population, political and

economic instabilities, and possibly anthropogenic-driven climatic changes.

Because of the diversity of the amounts of water involved, the variability of the response times, and

the myriad of water uses, civil engineers must deal with a multitude of physical and management water

problems. Some of these problems are water supply for cities, industries, and agriculture; drainage of

urban areas; and the collection of used water. Other problems deal with ﬂows in rivers, channels, and

estuaries; and ﬂood protection; while others are concerned with oceans and lakes, hydropower generation,

water transportation, etc. Although the emphasis of this section is on water quantity, some aspects of

water quality are considered.

Because of the multitude of different types of problems, hydraulic engineering is subdivided into a

number of specialties, many of which are the object of separate chapters in this section. These specialties

all have ﬂuid mechanics as a common basis. Because the concern is with water, there is little interest in

gases, and the fundamental science is hydraulics, which is the science of motion of incompressible ﬂuids.

The chapter on

Fundamentals of Hydraulics

presents properties of ﬂuids, hydrostatics, kinematics, and

dynamics of liquids. A separate chapter is devoted to

Open Channel Hydraulics

because of the importance

of free surface ﬂows in civil engineering applications. Erosion, deposition, and transport of sediments

are important in the design of stable channels and stable structures. Sediment resuspension has important

implications for water quality. These problems are treated in the chapter on

Sediment Transport in Open

Channels

The ﬂow of water in the natural environment such as rainfall and subsequent inﬁltration, evaporation,

ﬂow in rills and streams, etc., is the purview of

Surface Water Hydrology

. Because of the uncertainty of

natural events, the analysis of hydrologic data requires the use of statistics such as frequency analysis.

Urban Drainage

is the object of a separate chapter. Because of the importance of the problems associated

with urban runoff quality and with the deleterious effects of combined sewer overﬂows, a new chapter

has been added on

Quality of Urban Runoff

Hydrology is generally separated into surface water hydrology and subsurface hydrology, depending

on whether the emphasis is on surface water or on groundwater. The chapter on

Groundwater Engineering

is concerned with hydraulics of wells, land subsidence due to excessive pumping, contaminant transport,

site remediation, and landﬁlls.

Many

Hydraulic Structures

have been developed for the storage, conveyance, and control of natural

ﬂows. These structures include dams, spillways, pipes, open channels, outlet works, energy-dissipating

structures, turbines, pumps, etc. The interface between land and ocean and lakes is part of

Coastal

Hydraulic Engineering

-3

Engineering

. The chapter on Coastal Engineering also contains a discussion of the mechanics of ocean

waves and their transformation in shallow water and resultant coastal circulation. It also includes a

discussion of coastal processes and their inﬂuence on coastal structures.

Many forms of software and software packages are available to facilitate the design and analysis tasks.

Several of these were originally developed by government agencies and later improved by private com-

panies, which add preprocessors and postprocessors that greatly facilitate the input of data and the

plotting of output results. Many of these models, such as SWMM and the HEC series, have well-deﬁned

graphical and expert system interfaces associated with model building, calibration, and presentation of

results. Several of the public domain packages are listed in the chapter on

Simulation in Hydraulics and

Hydrology

and detailed examples of application to urban drainage are also given.

It is not sufﬁcient for civil engineers to deal only with the physical problems associated with water

resources. They are also concerned with planning and management of these resources. Conceptualization

and implementation of strategies for delivering water of sufﬁcient quantity and quality to meet societal

needs in a cost-effective manner are presented in the chapter on

Water Resources Planning and Management

As are most engineering sciences, hydraulic engineering is a rapidly moving ﬁeld. The computer, which

was a means of making computations, is now becoming a knowledge processor. The electronic encap-

sulation of knowledge and information in the form of software, databases, expert systems, and geograph-

ical information systems has produced a “Copernican revolution in Hydraulics” (Abbott 1994). The

Europeans have coined the word “Hydroinformatics” to designate the association of computational

hydraulic modeling and information systems. Thus hydraulic and hydrologic models become part of

larger computer-based systems that generate information for the different interests of the water resources

managers. For example, the linkage of storm sewer design and analysis packages with databases, geo-

graphical information systems, and computer-aided design systems is now becoming routine. Similarly,

decision support systems have integrated combinations of water resources simulations and optimization

models, databases, geographic information systems, expert- and knowledge-based systems, multiobjective

decision tools, and graphical user-friendly interfaces (Watkins et al. 1994). The emphasis has passed from

numerics

semiotics

(Abbott et al. 2001).

Hydroinformatics also introduces new methods to encapsulate existing knowledge often with the goal

of accelerating the rate of access to this knowledge. Some of these are data mining, genetic programming,

and artiﬁcial neural networks (Abbot et al. 2001). For example, artiﬁcial neural networks have been used

in the real time control of urban drainage systems.

One of the early issues of hydraulic modeling known as

model calibrations

is still an uncertainty, although

perhaps less apparent in this new paradigm. For example, if the roughness coefﬁcient is used to ﬁt calculated

ﬂows to measured discharges, unrealistic values of Mannings roughness coefﬁcient could hide unknown

information or physical phenomena not represented in the model. In that case, the model would not be

predictive, even with an excellent calibration (Abbott et al. 2001). However, in some cases, the laws

governing roughness coefﬁcients are not complete and new interpretations are needed. For example, in

the case of wetlands, as vegetation is deﬂected to one side and eventually ﬂattened, the values of the

roughness coefﬁcient departs markedly from the traditional Manning formulation (Kutija and Hong 1999).

The 1993 extreme ﬂoods in the Mississippi and Missouri basins indicated the importance of hydrologic

forecasting of the design of ﬂood protection structures and of water management at the basin scale while

taking into account the environmental, ecological, and economic impacts. According to Starosolski

(1991), the old approach of ﬁrst designing the engineering project and then considering the ecological

effects should be replaced by a systems approach in which the hydraulic, environmental, and ecological

aspects are all included in the planning, execution, and operation of water resources projects.

Progress in a topic of hydraulic engineering is presented in the Hunter Rouse Lecture at the annual

meeting of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers

and is subsequently published in the

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering

. The proceedings of the Congresses

of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, held every 4 years, summarize the advances in

the ﬁeld, primarily in the keynote papers.