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Incinerators 13-67
The HRA is the average of the instantaneous measurements taken over the past hour of operation.
Every minute, the average is computed by dropping the –60 min measurement (counting the present at
time zero) and adding the most recent measurement to the calculation.
The BIF regulations require that a maximum temperature also be set to limit the formation of metal
fumes. The regulations specify that this maximum be set as the mean of the maximum HRA from each
of the three runs of the trial burn or compliance test. To illustrate, consider a compliance test consisting
of three runs. The maximum value of the HRA (note that this is not the same as the maximum
temperature observed) during each run was 1900, 2100, and 2030°F. The limit on the maximum HRA
temperature would thus be the mean of these three values or 2010°F. The trial burn or the compliance
test serves the following two main purposes:
1. Demonstrate that the combustor can meet all applicable regulations.
2. Establish the conditions under which the combustor can meet the applicable regulations.
Assuming, of course, that the combustor is capable of meeting the applicable regulations, the trial
burn should use measurement methods that are adequate to demonstrate the requirements. Methods
have been developed for the vast majority of measurements required by the trial burn. If these methods
and the associated QA/QC procedures are adhered to, then the trial burn will be capable of demonstrating
compliance or noncompliance. Achievement of the second purpose requires that the combustor be
operated during the test at the worst-case conditions that will be encountered during normal operation.
If the combustor satisfies the regulatory, health, and safety demands under these worst-case conditions,
it will satisfy them under less severe operation.
Worst-case conditions for the combustor are defined by a series of limits (absolute or rolling, maxima
or minima) on the parameters summarized in Table 13.12. Most of the parameters listed in Table 13.12
are reasonably independent of one another. Changes in one will not affect other parameters to a significant
extent, so they can be set as extremes, but as combustion calculations show, the following parameters
are highly interdependent:
1. Primary and secondary chamber (PCC, SCC) temperatures
2. Flue gas velocity
3. Waste feed rates
4. Waste composition
5. Oxygen or excess air
Their values must be set by a series of iterative combustion calculations to find the waste compositions,
waste feed rates, and airflows that result in the desired temperature and flue gas flow rates. A great deal
of combustion calculation can result if they are not set in an orderly process.
The first step in establishing the conditions for the trial burn is to specify the temperatures of each of
the combustion chambers. In a multichamber system, the temperature of the secondary combustion
chamber is usually more critical, and that should be set first. Maximum temperatures are set from
equipment limits and metals emission considerations. Minimum temperatures are set on the basis of
operating experience or the experience of the vendor, which identify the minimum temperature at which
a given design successfully destroyed organic constituents.
The next operating condition that should be set is the maximum gas flow rates. The goal here is to
come as close as practical to the capacity of the fans, ducts, and air pollution control equipment. The
maximum gas flow rate that is desired during actual operation, which may be lower than the theoretical
maximum based on equipment capacity, should be the goal. The permit will place an upper limit on
this value, and maximizing it will thus give the operators as much flexibility as possible.
Waste feed rates for the trial burn should also be considered as a relatively inflexible condition. The
permit will set an upper limit on the feed rate of each waste category to each combustion chamber. A
common mistake in many permit applications is to overly categorize the waste. Normally, the following
waste categorization should prove adequate:
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13-68 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
1. High heating value (or Btu) liquid waste (greater than 5000 Btu/lb)
2. Low heating value liquid wastes (less than 5000 Btu/lb)
3. Solid wastes
The values are maximized by varying the composition of each waste stream. Typically, one does this
by setting the type and amount of POHCs required, then adding ash (as a soil or as a flyash, for example).
Heating values are increased by then adding fuel oil. They are decreased by replacing a portion of the
fuel oil with an oxygenated fuel such as methanol or by adding water. Combustion calculations are useful
for finding the waste compositions and quantities that give the required temperatures, halogen inputs,
and gas flow rates.
It is necessary that the operating conditions during the trial burn include the desired maximum or
minimum values for the Group A and B control parameters. For example, the “Handbook, Guidance for
Setting Permit Conditions and Reporting Trial Burn Results” (EPA, 1989b) specifies that the permit
TA BLE 13.12 Control Parameters for Incinerators
Group Parameter
Group A
Continuously monitored parameters are
interlocked with the automatic waste feed cutoff.
Interruption of waste feed is automatic when
specified limits are exceeded. The parameters are
applicable to all facilities.
1. Minimum temperature measured at each combustion chamber exit
2. Maximum CO emissions measured at the stack or other appropriate
location
3. Maximum flue gas flow rate or velocity measured at the stack or
other appropriate location
4. Maximum pressure in PCC and SCC
5. Maximum feed rate of each waste type to each combustion chamber
6. The following as applicable to the facility:
∑ Minimum differential pressure across particulate venturi scrubber
∑ Minimum liquid-to-gas ratio and pH to wet scrubber
∑ Minimum caustic feed to dry scrubber
∑ Minimum kVA settings to ESP (wetdry) and kV for ionized wet
scrubber (IWS)
∑ Minimum pressure differential across bag house
∑ Minimum liquid flowrate to IWS
Group B
Parameters do not require continuous monitoring
and are thus not interlocked with the waste feed
cutoff systems. Operating records are
nevertheless required to ensure that trial burn
worst-case conditions are not exceeded.
7. POHC incinerability limits
8. Maximum total halides and ash feed rate to the incinerator system
9. Maximum size of batches or containerized waste
10. Minimum particulate scrubber blowdown or total solids content of
the scrubber liquid
Group C
Limits on these parameters are set independently
of trial burn test conditions. Instead, limits are
based on equipment manufacturers’ design and
operating specifications and are thus considered
good operating practices. Selected parameters do
not require continuous monitoring and are not
interlocked with the waste feed cutoff.
11. Minimum/maximum nozzle pressure to scrubber
12. Maximum total heat input capacity for each chamber
13. Liquid injections chamber burner settings:
∑ Maximum viscosity of pumped waste
∑ Maximum burner turndown
∑ Minimum atomization fluid pressure
∑ Minimum waste heating value (only applicable when a given
waste provides 100% heat input to a given combustion chamber)
14. APCE inlet gas temperature
Items 5 and 9 are closely related; therefore these are discussed under group A parameters.
Item 14 can be a group B or C parameter. See text.
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, 1989b. Handbook, Guidance on Setting Permit Conditions and Reporting Trial
Burn Results, Volume II of the Hazardous Waste Incineration Guidance Series. EPA/625/6-89/019. Center for Environmental
Research Information, Cincinnati, OH.
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Incinerators 13-69
condition on PCC and SCC exit gas temperatures be set at the mean temperature measured during the
trial burn. Assume that the mean during a trial burn was 1800 ± 100°F. If the permit condition were
determined by the first, simpler condition, the absolute minimum operating temperature specified by
the permit condition would be 1800°F. If one desired that the incinerator be allowed to burn hazardous
waste at a mean temperature of 1800°F with a variation of ±l00°F, it would be necessary to conduct the
trial burn at a lower mean temperature, 1700°F. Then during operation, the normal 100°F temperature
fluctuation would not result in frequent waste feed cut-off. Similarly, the trial burn would have to be
conducted at somewhat lower excess air (oxygen concentration), higher gas flow rate, higher waste feed
rates, etc., than the minimum or maximum (as the case may be) during operation.
POHC Selection — Incinerability Ranking
Because of the wide range of organic compounds present in most wastes, it is impossible to test for each
one. The approach taken is to select the most difficult to destroy compounds (POHCs) that will occur
in the waste and demonstrate during the trial burn that they can be properly destroyed under the worst-
case operating conditions of the system. The POHCs are chosen on the basis of the types of organic
hazardous (usually those listed in Appendix VIII) compounds that will be in the waste and incinerability
ranking or rankings that are most suited for this application.
The POHC selection process begins with examination of the waste stream that will be burned during
operation and identification of those Appendix VIII organics that occur in significant quantities. There
is no specific guidance available at present to specify what constitutes a significant quantity. The decision
must be made on a case-by-case basis, evaluating anticipated concentrations or Appendix VIII organics,
their potential impact on health or the environment, or the public concern they generate. Those Appendix
VIII organics so identified are then grouped into categories such as aliphatics, aromatics, chlorinated
aliphatics, etc., and the POHCs selected from the most refractory (as established by an appropriate
incinerability ranking) compound from each category. This procedure establishes the POHCs as repre-
senting the worst-case conditions of organic hazardous compounds in the waste feed.
A point in POHC selection is summarized by the glib statement “Do not choose a POHC that is a
PIC.” Certain compounds such as chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and methane can be normal products
of combustion. Their formation appears to be dominated by a quasi-equilibrium so that their presence
cannot be reduced without radically changing the incinerator. The reader is referred to Dellinger et al.
(1988) for information that could be used to identify which compounds could be PICs and to the U.S.
EPA (1986b) for further guidance on the limits of measurement methods to assist in determining the
amount of POHC that should be fed to an incinerator. If a given compound forms in the incinerator,
its presence in the stack would decrease its apparent DRE. As a result, such compounds have been avoided
in the past when possible. If, due to sampling and analysis, compound availability, or other constraints,
a POHC must be selected that is also a PIC, the compound should be spiked up to levels high enough
to override the “PIC effect” on DRE.
The amount of each POHC that must be fed to the incinerator during a trial burn is determined by
the sensitivity of the measurement method that will be used. The quantity should be sufficient so the
measurement method used can show 99.99% DRE (or 99.9999% DRE for PCB or dioxin listed wastes).
The amount fed must be greater than 104 (106 for PCB and dioxin listed wastes) times the method’s
detection limit to assure that the test shows greater than 99.99% DRE (99.9999% DRE for PCB or dioxin
listed wastes).
For example, if the sampling and analytical method used to measure the emissions of a given POHC
has a detection limit of 10 g emitted from the stack, then one must feed a minimum of 10 ¥ 10
4
g or
100 kg of that POHC for each run of the trial burn to establish a DRE of 99.99% or 10 ¥ 10
6
mg (1000
kg) to establish a 99.9999% DRE. The sampling train only removes a small fraction of the total gas
emitted, so the determination must be based on the minimum sensitivity of the contained sampling and
analytical methods for measuring the incinerator’s total emissions, not just on the sensitivity of the
analytical methods.
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13-70 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
Incinerability ranking is a concept that was developed to identify those organic compounds that are
the most difficult to destroy. The incinerability ranking allows the incinerator operator the flexibility to
burn other wastes that are less difficult to destroy than those tested. Without this ability, incinerator
operation might be limited to only those specific compounds that were burned during the trial burn.
The RCRA regulations [40 CFR §170.62(b)(4)] require that the following occur:
Director will specify as trial Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents (POHCs)…based on his
estimate of the difficulty of incineration of the constituents identified in the waste analysis, their
concentration or mass in the waste feed, and for wastes listed in Part 261, Subpart D (listed wastes)
the hazardous waste organic constituent or constituents identified in Appendix VII of that part as the
basis for listing.
A number of incinerability rankings have been proposed (Dellinger et al., 1986), and any of them may
be appropriate for a given application. Each ranking strives to correlate a measurable property of the
compound to its “incinerability” – how readily it is destroyed in an incinerator. Each ranking is based
on a different property, such as the compound’s heat of combustion or how readily it is destroyed under
substoichiometric oxygen conditions. The difficulty in using such a ranking lies in the fact that while
each ranking method can be tied to a specific destruction mechanism, any properly operating incinerator
subjects the waste to a combination of destruction mechanisms. As a result, each ranking system lists
specific compounds in somewhat different order. There is no single recommended ranking system at
present, but virtually all incinerator and BIF tests are conducted on the basis of the heat of combustion
ranking (EPA, 1983) and the thermal stability ranking (EPA, 1992). The recommended procedure in the
selection process is as follows:
1. Examine the wastes that will be incinerated during the actual operation, and identify those
compounds that are likely to be present in significant amounts.
2. Classify the compounds that will be burned into broad categories such as aliphatics, aromatics,
chlorinated aliphatics, and chlorinated aromatics.
3. Select the POHCs by choosing at least one representative compound from each category. The
compound should be the most difficult to destroy of those present within the category by the
above two incinerability ranking schemes.
In October 2001, the EPA published new guidance on the design of the trial burn, including POHC
selection. This guidance incorporates a number of changes in the design of the incinerator performance
tests. The full guidance, entitled “Risk Burn Guidance for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities” is
available from the EPA’s Office of Solid and Hazardous Waste, and it can be downloaded from the website,
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/combust.htm.
Defining Terms
P — Pressure difference, pressure drop, pressure change over a piece of equipment
g/dL — Micrograms per deciliter
M — Micron, 10
–6
meters
ACFM — Actual cubic feet per minute
AMU — Atomic mass units, units for atomic or molecular weight of elements or compounds (1 AMU =
the weight of one hydrogen nucleus); Avogadro’s Number, 6.023 ¥ 10
23
AMU = 1 gram.
APCD — Air pollution control device
APCE — Air pollution control equipment
APCS — Air pollution control system
AWFCO — Automatic waste feed cutoff
AWFCS — Automatic waste feed cutoff system
AWMA — Air and Waste Management Association
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Incinerators 13-71
Bagasse — Waste cellulosic material remaining after a plant has been processed. For example, the solids
remaining after the juice has been extracted from sugar cane. Bagasse is sometimes used for
fuel in boilers at the plants that process materials such as sugar cane.
BIF — Boiler and industrial furnace
BOD — Biological oxygen demand
Btu — British thermal unit. The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound mass
of water one Fahrenheit degree.
CAA — Clean Air Act
CAAA — Clean Air Act Amendments
Carcinogen — A material likely to cause an increased incidence of cancer in the exposed population.
CEM(s) — Continuous emission monitor(s)
CEMS — Continuous emission monitor system
CERCLA — Comprehensive Environmental Restoration, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980
CFM — Cubic feet per minute
CFR — Code of Federal Register
CFS — Cubic feet per second
CMS — Cubic meters per second
CNAEL — Committee for the National Accreditation of Environmental Laboratories
CO — Carbon monoxide
CoC — Certification of Compliance
COD — Chemical oxygen demand
COPCs — Compounds of potential concern. Chemical compounds and elements that may may have a
significant impact on the risk associated with a facility and, hence, are measured during testing
to collect risk assessment emission data.
C
p
— Heat capacity (Btu/lb-°F or calories/g-°C) at constant pressure
C
p
— Pitot coefficient
CPT(s) — Comprehensive performance test(s)
CSAP — Comprehensive sampling and analysis plan
CSF — Carcinogenic slope factor
Cv — Heat capacity (Btu/lb-°F or calories/g-°C) at constant volume
CWA — Clean Water Act
D/F — Dioxins/furans, actually chlorodibenzodioxins/chlorodibenzofurans
DE — Destruction efficiency, a measure of the percentage of a given component that is destroyed by the
combustion process. This term is often confused with the DRE (see below), but it is very
different. It represents the fraction of the organics entering a cumbustor which are destroyed.
The DRE represents the fraction of the organics entering an incinerator which are emitted. The
following equation defines the DE: DE = (W
in
– W
out combustion chamber
/W
in
) ¥ 100 (percent), where
W is the weight or mass of the POHC being measured.
DRE — Destruction and removal efficiency of the combustor, defined in 40 CFR 264.34(a)(1). This
value does not include the POHC remaining in the ash and captured by the APCE as part of
the W
out
APCE term. The following equation defines the DRE: DRE = (W
in
– W
out APCE
/W
in
) ¥
100 (percent), where W is the weight or mass of the POHC being measured.
dscf — Dry standard cubic foot. Gas volume corrected to standard conditions (see scf), and excluding
water vapor.
dscfm — Dry standard cubic feet per minute (see scf)
dscm — Dry standard cubic meter (see dscf)
EA or %EA — Excess air or percent excess air. The quantity of air above the stoichiometric quantity
needed for combustion. The value is equivalent to that for excess oxygen or percent excess
oxygen for combustion devices using only air as a source of combustion oxygen, no oxygen
enrichment. See also Stoichiometric Oxygen.
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13-72 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
EPA — U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Equivalence — Equivalent to the excess air ratio. An equivalence ratio of 1 is ratio
ESP — Electrostatic Precipitator
ESV, EVS — Emergency safety vent, emergency vent stack, also known as a “dump stack.”
FACA — Federal Advisory Committee Act
FBI — Fluidized bed incinerator
Feedrate — The rate of feed (lb/hr, kg/hr, ton/hr) of a waste or fuel stream to a combustion device.
FF — Fabric filter
Forced Air — A means of supplying air to a combustion chamber or APCD draft by placing the fan (or
other air mover) upstream (in front) of the device so that the fan forces the air through the
device. A forced draft system operates at a pressure above atmospheric. See also ID.
FRP — Fiber reinforced plastic. A composite material of construction consisting of strands of fiber
embedded in a polymer matrix. The most commonly used is fiberglass, although other fibers
such as graphite or steel can be used. The polymeric material is selected to provide strength
and corrosion resistance. The fiber provides tensile strength to the composite and the polymer
provides compression strength and resistance to chemical attack.
Fuel — Any combustible material fed to a combustor. The term can refer to supplemental fuel (oil,
natural gas, LP-gas, or a nonhazardous waste) or to a combustible hazardous waste stream.
g — Gram or grams
g-mole — Gram mole, the number of atoms or molecules of a substance that equals its atomic or
molecular weight in grams. For example, 1 gram mole of benzene, molecular weight 78, is
equivalent to 78 grams of benzene. This term is also equal to, approximately, 6.023 ¥ 10
23
atoms
or molecules of the substance. A quantity of the substance of this size is referred to as a g-mole.
GPO — Government Printing Office
gr/dscf — Grains per dry standard cubic foot (1 grain = 1/7000 lb)
GSA — General Services Administration
H, Qsens — Enthalpy or sensible heat of a stream. It is the heat contained by a material which manifests
itself as a temperature. It is defined as H = c
p
dT.
HAF — Halogen acid furnace
HAP(s) — Hazardous air pollutant(s)
H
c
— Heat of combustion
HC — Hydrocarbons
HCl — Hydrogen chloride. Hydrochloric acid emissions regulated under RCRA 40 CFR §264.343(b)
to 99% removal efficiency, 1.8 kg/h (4 lb/h) maximum emission rate, or a risk-based level.
H
f
— Heat of formation
Hg — Mercury
HHV — Higher heating value. The heat of combustion of a fuel or waste which includes the latent heat
of condensation of the water formed in the process. While this value is the one measured by
calorimetric means, the LHV is more appropriate for combustor determinations. See LHV.
HHV = LHV + ?
hw
, where ?H
w
= latent heat of vaporization of the water produced by the
combustion process.
H
L
— Latent heat. The heat or energy that is released by a phase change such as evaporation, boiling,
or freezing. For example, the latent heat of evaporation of water is approximately 950 Btu/lb,
which is the energy required to convert one pound of liquid water to one pound of vapor or
steam.
HON — Hazardous Organic NESHAP
hr or h — hour(s)
HSWA — Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1986. The law that reauthorized RCRA with a
number of changes and expansions.
HW — Hazardous waste
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Incinerators 13-73
HWC — Hazardous waste combustor
HWI — Hazardous waste incinerator
ID — Induced draft. A means of supplying air to a combustion chamber or APCD by placing the fan
(or other air mover) downstream (after) the device so that the fan pulls the air through the
device. An induced draft system operates at a pressure below atmospheric. See also Forced Draft.
Impinger — A device used in sampling trains for collecting gaseous and (at times) particulate compo-
nents from stack gases. Impingers are produced in two sizes.
Incinerator — A closed furnace or similar device specifically intended to burn waste material.
IR — Infrared light
IWS — Ionizing wet scrubber. An air pollution control device that combines the performance of a
scrubber for HCl control and an ESP for particulate control.
kV — Kilovolts, 103 Volts
kVA — Kilovolt-amperes (product of voltage and current). A measure of the power usage of an electrical
device. It is one of the parameters that is used to describe the operating performance of an ESP
or IWS. kVA is dimensionally analogous to kW, although they actually measure somewhat
different parameters.
kW — Kilowatts, 103 watts. A measure of the power input into an electical device such as a motor. For
DC systems, the power input in kW is equivalent to the kVA. For AC systems, the power input
is equivalent to kVA times the phase angle shift due to inductance in the circuit.
lb(s) — Pound(s), avoirdupois (avdp.)
lb-mole — Pound mole, the number of atoms or molecules of a substance that equals its atomic or
molecular weight in grams. For example, 1 pound-mole of benzene, molecular weight 78, is
equivalent to 78 pounds of benzene. This term is also equal to, approximately, 2.732 ¥ 10
25
atoms
or molecules of the substance. A quantity of the substance of this size is referred to as a lb-mole.
LD-50 — Lethal dose-50, The concentration of a contaminant in air or the quantity as a mg of contam-
inant per kg of body weight of a solid or liquid which results in the mortality of 50% of a
population of test animals. The LD-50 often also specifies the type of animal, i.e., mouse, rat,
etc. This is a common indicator of the acute toxicity of materials.
L/G — Liquid-to-gas ratio. This is a ratio commonly used in the design and operation of wet scrubbers.
LHV — Lower heating value. The heat of combustion of a fuel or waste that does not take into account
the latent heat of water. The LHV is usually the more appropriate value to use for most
incinerator calculations.
LI — Liquid (injection) incinerator
LVM — Low volatility metals
LWA — Lightweight aggregate
LWAK — Lightweight aggregate kiln
M — Minute of time (60 seconds)
M — Meter of length
MACT — Maximum achievable control technology
mg/kg — Milligrams per kilogram
mg/m
3
— Milligrams per cubic meter
MHI — Multiple hearth incinerator
MM — Million (10
6
) as in MMBtu = 106 Btu
MM5 — EPA Modified Method 5. A commonly used name for SW-846 Method 0010 that measures
organic compunds with boiling points that are greater than 100°C (212°F). It is sometimes
referred to as “semi-VOST.”
MSDS — Material Safety Data Sheet
Mutagen — Material that triggers mutations (changes in DNA composition) which manifest themselves
in various ways in an exposed population, for example, an increased level of birth defects.
MWC — Municipal waste combustor
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13-74 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
NAAQS — National Ambient Air Quality Standard
NESHAP — National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
Ng/dscm — Nanogram per dry standard cubic meter
NO
2
— Nitrogen dioxide
NPDES — National pollutant discharge elimination system. The permitting and regulatory program
under the Clean Water Act that restricts discharges to waterways.
O
3
— Ozone
Orsat — A type of apparatus used to measure the concentration of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon
monoxide in a gas. It operates on the principle of sequential absorption of the target gases in
a solution.
Overfire — Air fed to a furnace above the flame.
Oxidizing conditions — Combustion in the presence of a stoichiometric quantity, or more, conditions.
See also Reducing Conditions.
P&ID — Piping and Instrumentation Diagram, also “P&I Diagram” (plural form — “P&IDs”).
PAH — Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, synonymous with POMs, POHs. A polycyclic compound
similar in structure to naphthalene or anthracene but containing varying numbers of interlock-
ing benzene rings. PAHs are considered to be carcinogenic. Proper combustion results in only
minute (ppb) quantities in the flue gas.
PCB(s) — Polychlorinated biphenyl(s)
PCDD(s) — Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin(s)
PCDF(s) — Polychlorinated dibenzofuran(s)
PDF — Portable document format
PIC — Products of incomplete combustion, also sometimes known as “Hazardous Products of Com-
bustion.” Those organic materials are formed during the combustion process, either as equi-
librium products that escaped combustion or as breakdown or recombinant organic compouds
that do not exist in the original waste. Legally, PIC refers to RCRA Appendix VIII organic
compounds not present in the feed that result from combustion of waste.
PM — Particulate matter. This term refers to solid or liquid material entrained in a gas stream.
PM10 or PM-10 — Particulate matter of less than 10µM in diameter
PM2.5 or PM-2.5 — Particulate matter of less than 2.5µM in diameter. This size particulate may be
regulated because fine particulate (of small diameter) will have a greater impact on health than
larger particulate.
POH — Polynuclear organic hydrocarbon, synonymous with PA H and POM
POHC — Principal organic hazardous constituent. These are the organic constituents measured during
a trial burn. They are selected to be representative of all of the organic hazardous constituents
in the waste and typically include those constituents that are more difficult to destroy. POHC
normally refers to RCRA Appendix VIII organic compounds present in the feed as either a
component of the waste or added for the tests selected for evaluation of DRE during the trial
burn.
POM — Polycyclic organic material, synonymous with PA H and POH
ppb, ppbv — Parts per billion, 10
–9
. The definition is completely analogous to ppm and ppmv.
ppm — Parts per million, 10
–6
. A measure of concentration on the basis of mg of analyte per kg of
sample. Synonyms are mg/kg and µg/g. The term ppm is sometimes used to indicate mg of
analyte per liter of sample; however, this definition is incorrect unless the sample is reasonably
pure water or another material with a density of 1 g/ml.
ppmv — Parts per million by volume, 10
–6
. A measure of concentration on the basis of volume such as
l/l or ml/1000 l. This unit of measurement is normally used to specify concentrations of gaseous
contaminants in air.
ppt, pptv — Parts per trillion, 10
–12
. The definition is completely analogous to ppm and ppmv.
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Incinerators 13-75
Primary air — Air mixed with the fuel prior to the point of ignition, usually at a high velocity to improve
turbulence in the combustion chamber. It may be aimed at the flame or simply into the post-
flame combustion zone to increase turbulence and add oxygen, through the nozzle, or as
underfire air through a burning solid bed. See also Secondary Air.
QA — Quality assurance
QA/QC — Quality assurance/quality control. QC is the system of activities to provide a quality product
or a measurement of satisfactory quality. QA is the system of activities to provide assurance
that the quality control system is performing adequately (from QA Handbook for Air Pollution
Measurements, Vol. 1, Principles, EPA-600/9–76–005, March, 1976).
QC — Quality control
RCRA — Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 and Amendments, see HSWA
Reducing conditions — Combustion in the absence of at least a stoichiometric quantity of oxygen. See
also Oxidizing Conditions.
Risk — The incremental probability of a person incurring cancer from a carcinogen or being adversely
impacted by a noncarcinogenic material. The risk to the MEI from exposure to a particular
carcinogen is calculated by multiplying the predicted maximum annual average ground-level
concentration of the substance by its unit risk.
Sampling train — A series of equipment including filters, absorbers, impingers and adsorbers and gas
moving and measuring devices that are used to collect samples of gases from a stack or other
ducts.
SARA — Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
scf — Standard cubic foot. Gas volume corrected to standard temperature and pressure, usually 20°C,
or 70°F and 1 atmosphere
scfm — Standard cubic feet per minute. Gas flow rate corrected to standard temperature and pressure
(see scf)
scm — Standard cubic meter. Gas volume corrected to standard temperature and pressure (see scf)
Secondary air — Air mixed with the fuel after ignition as in the combustion chamber, see also primary
air
Sludge — Fine particles of solid suspended in a liquid which form a slow-flowing multiphase material
that is relatively stable (see also Slurry).
Slurry — Particles of solid or immiscible liquid suspended in liquid (see also Sludge). A slurry normally
consists of larger particles than a sludge, and it will tend to form a pasty material that will settle
with time.
SO
2
, SO
3
, SO
x
— Sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfur oxides (mixture of SO
2
and SO
3
)
SOCMI — Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industry
Soot — Carbonaceous material formed during pyrolysis or combustion in the absence of sufficient
oxygen. Soot is considered to be the high molecular weight portion of the PAHs. Formation of
visible soot is usually an indication of improper combustion conditions, although soot may
form in the primary combustion process if it is destroyed in a secondary combustor or captured
by the APCE.
Stoichiometric oxygen — The amount of oxygen required to exactly react with a fuel or waste for the
combustion reaction. If the source of oxygen is air, then the term commonly used is stoichio-
metric air. When no external source of oxygen is used other than air (no oxygen enrichment),
the two values are equivalent.
STP — Standard temperature and pressure, 70°F (530 R) and 1 atmosphere (29.92” Hg) for English
Units, 20°C (293 K) 760 mmHg, 101.3 kPa for metric and SI units, respectively. Other standard
conditions are often used for presentation of data in the literature. While the pressure of
1 atmosphere is virtually universal, temperatures used may be 68°F (20°C) and 0°C. The reader
is cautioned to check the standard conditions for any thermodynamic data obtained from the
literature. The standard temperatures used in this manual for English and metric units (70°F
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
13-76 The Civil Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
and 68°C, respectively) are slightly different; these were chosen as the most common conditions
(in the author’s experience) encountered in practice, and the slight differences between them
are negligible in the context of incineration.
THC — Total hydrocarbons. Total organic compound releases from a source such as an incinerator. This
can be continuously monitored during operation by a hydrocarbon analyzer.
Theoretical oxygen or air — Synonymous with stoichiometric oxygen or stoichiometric air
TSCA — Toxic Substance Control Act
TSD — Treatment, storage, and disposal
TSDF — Treatment, storage, and disposal facility. A facility regulated under RCRA that is used to treat,
store, or dispose of hazardous wastes.
TSLoO
2
— Thermal stability at low or deficient oxygen conditions. A method for estimating how readily
a compound will be destroyed in the absence of oxygen compared to other compounds. This
ranking is being evaluated by EPA as a method of selecting POHCs for a trial burn. It is
sometimes referred to as the University of Dayton Research Institute (or UDRI) incinerability
ranking system.
Tur ndown — Fraction of design capacity at which a system is operating. For example, a combustor
operating at 30 MM Btu/h at 70% turndown will be operating at 30 ¥ 0.70 = 21 MM Btu/h.
Underfire air — Air fed under a bed of burning solids in a boiler or furnace. See also, overfire air.
v — Ve locity or gas velocity, ft/sec, m/sec
V — Vo lume, ft
3
or m
3
, specific volume. ft
3
/lb, ft
3
/lb-mole, m
3
/g, m
3
/g-mole. This is the inverse of the
density of a material.
VMT — Ve hicle-miles-of-travel
VOC — Volatile organic compound
WESP — Wet electrostatic precipitation
References
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 1988. Hazardous Waste Incineration, A Resource Document.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, January.
Anderson 2000, Inc. 1984. Scrubbing and Filtration Systems to Control Gaseous and Particulate Emissions
from Hazardous Waste Incinerators. Bulletin TR82–9000145. January.
Barton, R.G., Maly, P.M., Clark, W.D., Seeker W.R., and Lanier, W.S. 1988. Prediction of the Fate of Toxic
Metals in Hazardous Waste Incinerators. Energy and Environmental Research Consortium, Final
Report, October, 12–191.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories. 1972. Fluidized-Bed Incineration of Selected Carbonaceous Industrial
Wastes. Final Report Prepared Under Grant #12120 FYF for the State of Ohio Department of
Natural Resources, March.
Bonner, T.A. 1981. Engineering Handbook for Hazardous Waste Incineration. EPA-SW-889
(NTISPB81–248163), September.
Bostian, H.E. and Crumpler, E.P. 1989. “Metals and Organic Emissions at Four Municipal Wastewater
Sludge Incinerators,” Portion of Paper Presented on Waste Incineration at Meeting of Pacific Basin
Consortium for Hazardous Waste Management, Singapore, April 3–6, 1989. Available from author
(Bostian, EPA, Cincinnati, OH).
Bostian, H.E., Crumpler, E.P., Palazzolo, M.A., Barnett, K.W., and Dykes, R.M. 1988. “Emissions of Metals
and Organics from Four Municipal Wastewater Sludge Incinerators — Preliminary Data,” Paper
Presented at Conference on Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge Management, Palm Beach,
FL, June 28–30, 1988. Available from author (Bostian, EPA, Cincinnati, OH).
Brady, J. 1982. “Understanding Venturi Scrubbers for Air Pollution Control.” Technical Publishing.
Reprint from Plant Engineering, September 30.
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