Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Recycling Coalition

or pollution budgets, for up to 40,000 bodies of water and

rivers segments.

[Margaret Alic Ph.D.]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

Treadway, Elizabeth, Andrew Reese, and Douglas Noel. “EPA Finalizes

Phase II Regs.” The American City and County 115, no. 4 (March 2000):

44–9.

THER

Office of Wastewater Management. Water Permitting 101. U.S. Environ-

mental Protection Agency. [cited May 25, 2002]. <www.epa.gov/npdes/

pubs/101pape.htm>.

Office of Water. Wastewater Primer. U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency. [cited May 26, 2002]. <www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/primer.pdf>.

Water Permits Division, Office of Water. Protecting the Nation’s Waters

Through Effective NPDES Permits: A Strategic Plan, FY 2001 and Beyond.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. June 2001 [cited May 25, 2002].

<www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/strategicplan.pdf>.

RGANIZATIONS

Friends of the Earth, 1025 Vermont Avenue, NW, Washington, DC,

USA 20005, (202) 783-7400, Fax: (202) 783-0444 , Toll Free: (877) 843-

8687, Email: foe@foe.org, <www.foe.org>

Office of Wastewater Management, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, Mail Code 4201, 401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC, USA

20460, (202) 260-5922, Fax: (202) 260-6257, <www.epa.gov/npdes>

National Priorities List

The National Priorities List, or NPL, is a list compiled by

the

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) as a part of

the Superfund program under the Comprehensive Environ-

mental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CER-

CLA). CERCLA was enacted by Congress on December

11, 1980. This law levied a tax on the chemical and

petro-

leum

industries and gave the Federal government broad

authority to respond directly to actual or threatened releases

of hazardous substances. $1.6 billion was collected in the

five years between 1980 and 1985. The tax money was placed

in a trust fund for cleaning up abandoned or uncontrolled

hazardous waste

sites. CERCLA was amended by the

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

on October 17, 1986.

CERCLA requires the EPA to identify hazardous

waste sites on an annual basis throughout the United States.

The law allows for two types of response: short-term removal

of hazardous materials in emergency situations; and long-

term remedial response actions. Long-term response actions

can be conducted only at sites placed on the National Priori-

ties List (NPL) by the EPA.

After in-depth testing and studies, the EPA places

sites on the NPL in order of severity of contamination.

957

Contamination is measured by the

Hazard Ranking Sys-

tem

(HRS), which yields a numerical score calculated on

the basis of the site’s risk factors. Risk factors are grouped

into three categories: the site’s potential for releasing hazard-

ous substances into the

environment

; the amount and toxic-

ity of the waste materials; and the number of people or

sensitive environments affected by the hazardous materials.

The HRS evaluates four possible pathways of contamination:

ground water; surface water;

soil

exposure; and air

mi-

gration

HRS scores range between 0 and 100. Sites that score

above 28.5 qualify for listing on the NPL. A site may also

be listed if the

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease

Registry

(ATSDR) issues a health advisory for the site. In

addition, each state or territory of the United States is al-

lowed to place one top-priority site on the NPL without

regard to its HRS score. The proposal is then published in

the Federal Register . At this point, the public has an oppor-

tunity to comment in writing on the site’s addition to the

National Priorities List. As of May 29, 2002, 812 sites on

the NPL were classified as having construction completed;

1221 sites remained on the NPL, with 74 new sites proposed

for addition to the list.

The EPA administers the Superfund program in coop-

eration with individual states and Native American tribal

governments. The Office of Emergency and Remedial Re-

sponse (OERR) oversees management of the program. See

also Hazardous waste site remediation; Hazardous waste

siting; Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

[Rebecca J. Frey Ph.D.]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Probst, Katherine N., and David M. Konisky. Superfunds Future: What

Will It Cost? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.

THER

United States Environmental Protection Agency. Fact Sheets. [cited July

2002]. <http://www.epa.gov/superfund/action/index.htm>.

RGANIZATIONS

EPA primary contact: Carolyn Offutt, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,

Mail Code 5202G, Washington, DC USA 20460 (703) 603-8797, Email:

offutt.carolyn@epa.gov, <http://www.epa.gov/superfund/contacts/index.

htm>

National Recycling Coalition

Founded in 1978, the National

Recycling

Coalition (NRC)

is a non-profit organization comprised of concerned individ-

uals and environmental, labor, and business organizations

who wish to promote the recovery and

reuse

of materials

and energy. Believing that recycling is vital to the nation’s

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Research Council

well-being, NRC encourages collection, the development of

more processing venues, and the purchase and promotion

of recycled materials.

Originally formed by a small group of recycling profes-

sionals to convince others that recycling provides many bene-

fits to America’s economy, NRC has since grown to 4,500

members. They participate in several different projects, in-

cluding the Peer Match Program—in which NRC gives

technical advice and direct assistance in recycling—and tech-

nical councils such as the Rural Recycling Council and the

Minority Council. The most prominent of these councils is

the Recycling Advisory Council (RAC)

The Coalition established the RAC in 1989 to build

consensus on recycling issues. Partially funded by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), the mission of

the RAC is to “examine the current status of recycling in

the United States with the aim of recommending consensus

public policies and private initiatives to increase recycling,

consistent with the protection of public health and the envi-

ronment.” The NRC Board of Directors selects members

of the RAC from among high-ranking environmental and

public interest groups, recycling professionals, and business

and industry. The RAC examines information on a specific

recycling topic and then issues recommendations; both pub-

lic and private organizations recognize the standards the

RAC sets. Some topics about which the Council has made

decisions include the definition of recycling; solid

waste

management

costs; and policies and initiatives to promote

the recycling of paper and

plastics

One of the most productive campaigns of the NRC

has been the “Buy Recycled Business Alliance.” Twenty-five

major American businesses in cooperation with NRC have

agreed to increase the number of their products and packages

made with recycled materials. In conjunction with the Alli-

ance, NRC launched the “Buy Recycled” campaign. Aimed

at consumers, it promotes a market for recycled products

by encouraging the patronage of companies that sell such

products. NRC maintains that first, one must request and

buy recycled products, then one must ask governments and

businesses to buy recycled material, and third, one should

help develop a lasting system for procuring recyclable ma-

terial.

NRC sponsors an annual conference, the National

Recycling Congress and Exposition. Regarded as the nation’s

most significant recycling event, this membership meeting

exhibits the latest innovations in recycling and allows net-

working within the recycling industry. NRC also publishes

a quarterly newsletter and the National Policy on Recycling

and Policy Resolutions, thereby keeping members and the

concerned public abreast of recycling matters.

[Andrea Gacki]

958

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

National Recycling Coalition, 1325 G Street NW, Suite 1025, Washington,

D.C. USA 20005-3104 (202) 347-0450, Fax: (202) 347-0449, Email:

info@nrc-recycle.org, <http://www.nrc-recycle.org>

National Research Council

The National Research Council (NRC) was organized by

the

National Academy of Sciences

(NAS) in 1916 to con-

nect the broad community of science and technology with

the goals of the NAS, i.e., advancing the state of knowledge

and advising the federal government. The NRC has become

the principal agency of both the NAS and the National

Academy of Engineering (NAE) in providing services to the

government, the public, and the scientific and engineering

communities. The NRC is administered by both Academies

and the Institute of Medicine.

During the early years of World War I, there was

concern about the lack of American preparedness if the

United States should enter the war. The NAS had been

active during the Civil War and for some years after the end

of the war, but had become inactive during the latter part

of the nineteenth century and into the first decade of the

twentieth century. In 1915, George Ellery Hale, an astro-

physicist and member of the NAS since 1902, advocated to

the NAS president the offering of the services of the NAS

to the U.S. Government in case of entry in the war. In April

of 1916, Hale introduced a resolution to the NAS, which

passed unanimously, that stated:

“That the President of the Academy be requested to

inform the President of the United States that in the event

of a break in diplomatic relations with any other country

the academy desires to place itself at the disposal of the

Government for any service within its scope.”

President Woodrow Wilson agreed to the proposal,

and a Committee for the Organization of the Scientific

Resources of the Country for National Service was ap-

pointed. Members of the committee included some of the

leading scientists of the time: physicist Robert A. Millikan,

biologist Edwin G. Conklin, medical laboratory director

Simon Flexner, and physical chemist Arthur A. Noyes. In

June of 1916 the committee called for:

“A National Research Council, the purpose of which

shall be to bring into cooperation government, educational,

industrial, and other research organizations with the object

of encouraging the investigation of natural phenomena, and

increased use of scientific research in the development of

American industries, the employment of scientific methods

in strengthening the national defense, and such other appli-

cations of science as will promote the national security and

welfare.”

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National seashore

The plan was approved by the NAS and by President

Wilson. The NRC was organized in September, 1916, with

Hale as the first chairman. Members represented the govern-

ment, various branches of the military, universities, and pri-

vate research laboratories. Members were grouped into Divi-

sions, which were organized according to disciplines or

functions. Smaller units within the Divisions worked on

specific projects and studies.

Although organized to meet a specific emergency, the

NRC, due to its valuable wartime service, was made a perma-

nent organization by an executive order of President Wilson

in 1918.

Presently, the activities of the NRC are supervised

by Major Program Units. The Major Program Units may

conduct projects on the their own, but more frequently su-

pervise projects organized under numerous subsidiary stand-

ing boards and committees. These boards and committees,

which provide independent advice to the government, are

comprising experts who serve without compensation. They

provide draft reports on issues of concern and subject the

draft reports to rigorous review before release to ensure qual-

ity and integrity. The composition and balance of the study

committees are carefully monitored to avoid potential con-

flict of interest and bias. Major Program Units include:

Policy Division; Center for Sciences, Mathematics, and En-

gineering Education, Commission on Behavioral and Social

Sciences and Education; Commission on Engineering and

Technical Systems; Commission on Geosciences,

Environ-

ment

, and Resources; Commission on Life Sciences; Com-

mission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applica-

tions; Office of International Affairs, Office of Scientific

and Engineering Personnel; Board on Agriculture; and

Transportation

Research Board.

The NRC also provides library services to the staffs and

committee members of the NAS, NAE, and the Institute of

Medicine as well as to the NRC.

[Judith Sims]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

The National Academies, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution

Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. USA 20418 (202) 334-2000, <http://

www.nas.edu/nrc>

National seashore

The

National Park Service

, under the

U.S. Department

of the Interior

, manages ten tracts of coastal land known

as national seashores. Over 435 miles (700 km) of Atlantic,

Gulf, and Pacific coastline, including over 592,800 acres

(240,000 hectares) of beaches,

dunes

, sea cliffs, maritime

959

forests, fresh ponds, marshes, and estuaries comprise the

National Seashore System.

Protection of the sensitive natural habitats is only one

of the objectives of the National Seashores System that the

Park Service has established. These areas are also lightly

developed for recreational purposes, including roads, admin-

istrative buildings, and some commercial businesses. In fact,

until recently it was stipulated that public access must be

provided to these areas. A third objective is to combat coastal

erosion

, as beaches and dunes are important as buffers to

coastal storms.

The need to preserve coastal areas in their natural

states was recognized as long ago as 1934, when the Park

Service surveyed the Gulf and Atlantic coasts and identified

12 areas deserving of federal protection. The first of these

to be authorized was Cape Hatteras National Seashore, a

narrow strip of

barrier island

on the North Carolina outer

banks. Acquiring the land, however, remained a problem

until after World War II, when the Mellon Foundation

matched state contributions and purchased the first of what

is now over 100 mi (160 km) of beaches, dunes, marsh, and

maritime forest.

In 1961, Cape Cod National Seashore in Massachu-

setts was the second area to be so designated. Protecting

beach and dune areas of biological and geologically signifi-

cance, this site was acquired with legislation that set the

standard for future Park Service acquisitions. The “Cape Cod

Formula” is the model for current regulation and purchase of

private improved lands by the Park Service.

Five more sites were authorized between 1962 and

1966, including Fire Island on Long Island, New York, and

Point Reyes National Seashore, the only national seashore

on the west coast. Assateague Island, on the eastern shore

of Maryland and Virginia, was deemed too developed to

become a protected area but a nor’easter storm in March

1962 destroyed or seriously damaged nearly all of the devel-

opment. By 1965, about 31 mi (50 km) of shoreline were

purchased and became part of the National Seashore System.

In the 1970s, the final three national seashores were

authorized. Gulf Islands is a non-continuous collection of

estuarine, barrier island, and marsh habitats in Mississippi

and Florida. It also includes an historic Spanish fort. Cum-

berland Island, Georgia, is the most “natural” of the ten

national sea shores and is completely undeveloped with the

only access being a public ferry from the mainland. The

other National Seashores are Padre Island, in Texas; Cape

Lookout, in North Carolina; and the newest national sea-

shore, Florida’s Cape Canaveral.

The National Historic Preservation Act (passed in

1966), the

Coastal Zone Management Act

(1972), and the

National Seashore Act (1976) have been written to ensure

that not all natural coastal areas fall to development. Public

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Wildlife Federation

recognition and subsequent congressional action have saved

these few areas that are important as fish and shellfish spawn-

ing and nursery areas, bird and sea turtle nesting grounds,

and refuges for threatened vegetation and

wildlife

. See also

Wetlands

[William G. Ambrose Jr.]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Kaufman, W., and O. Pilkey Jr. The Beaches Are Moving: The Drowning

of America’s Shoreline. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1983.

Mackintosh, B. The National Historic Preservation Act and the National Park

Service: A History. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1986.

Sutton, A., and M. Sutton. Wilderness Areas of North America. New York:

Funk and Wagnalls, 1974.

National Weather Service

see

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)

National Wildlife Federation

With over five million members or supporters, the National

Wildlife

Federation (NWF) is the country’s largest and one

of its most influential

conservation

organizations. The

NWF has worked since 1936 to “promote wise use of the

nation’s wildlife and natural resources,” and their primary

goal is “to educate citizens about the need for sustainable

use and proper management of our natural resources.”

NWF sponsors National Wildlife Week, held during

Earth Action Month, and it distributes over 600,000 educa-

tion kits to more than 20 million elementary school students.

NWF also operates the Institute for Wildlife Research,

which concentrates on such creatures as bears, wild cats, and

birds of prey. Their Backyard Wildlife

Habitat

Program

distributes information and encourages homeowners to set

up their own refuges for wild animals by providing food,

water, and shelter, and by planting or preserving trees and

shrubs and building backyard ponds. The program has certi-

fied more than 6,000 backyard habitats nationwide, and the

group maintains a model backyard habitat at Laurel Ridge

Conservation Center in Vienna, Virginia.

The National Wildlife Federation also sponsors a vari-

ety of nature-oriented meetings and programs. These include

workshops and training sessions for grassroots leaders, chil-

dren’s wildlife camps and Teen Adventure Programs at facili-

ties in North Carolina and Colorado, and NatureQuest, a

leadership training program for young people. The organiza-

tion also offers conservation internships, allowing young

people to work with their professional staff; outdoor vaca-

960

tions for adults and families; symposiums and lectures on

urban wildlife and gardening at the Laurel Ridge Conserva-

tion Center; and the National Conservation Achievement

Awards, recognizing outstanding work in the field. Other

NWF activities include co-presenting the PBS series “Con-

serving America,” producing a biweekly column called “The

Backyard Naturalist,” which appears in 7,000 publications

nationwide, and publishing books on wildlife for adults and

children.

NWF’s magazines have a combined circulation of 1.7

million, and include the bimonthly publications National

Wildlife and International Wildlife for adults, Ranger Rick

for elementary school children, and Your Big Backyard for

preschoolers. NWF also publishes The Conservation Direc-

tory, a comprehensive listing of about 2,000 regional, na-

tional, and international conservation groups, agencies, and

officials, and NatureScope, a science and

nature

school activ-

ity series used by over 30,000 teachers of elementary and

middle school students.

Each year, NWF issues its Environmental Quality

Index, assessing the status of air, water, wildlife, and other

natural resources

, as well as the quality of life in America.

It also coordinates a nationwide

bald eagle

count each

year and distributes millions of its famous wildlife stamps.

NWF has been involved in a wide range of political

campaigns. They have challenged government

strip mining

and timber cutting programs, worked to upgrade the

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) to cabinet-

level status, helped strengthen enforcement of the

Safe

Drinking Water Act

, and created the Corporate Conserva-

tion Council to encourage dialogue with industry on

conservation issues.

The National Wildlife Federation differs from many

other conservation groups in that the organization, and espe-

cially its state affiliates, strongly advocates

hunting and

trapping

, emphasizing consumptive management of wild-

life over pure preservation and protection. This has, at times,

placed NWF at odds with other conservation groups, partic-

ularly during the 1979–80 fight over the Alaska lands legisla-

tion. In this battle, the federation strongly opposed protec-

tionist bills supported by the general conservation

community and fought instead for legislation supported by

oil and gas interests, as well as

hunting

supporters. However,

under the recent leadership of Jay D. Hair, the NWF has

become somewhat less anti-preservationist (although most

of its affiliates remain in that mold). The group is now

considered a stronger advocate for environmental causes,

even some controversial causes it would not have supported

in earlier years.

[Lewis G. Regenstein]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Native landscaping

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Washington D.C. Field Office, National Wildlife Federation, 1400 16th

Street NW, Washington, D.C. USA 20036 (202) 797-6800, Fax: (202)

797-6646, <http://www.nwf.org>

National wildlife refuge

The United States began establishing

wildlife

refuges under

Theodore Roosevelt

. In 1903 he declared Pelican Island

in Florida a refuge for the

brown pelican

, protecting a

species

that was close to

extinction

. In 1906 Congress

closed all refuges to

hunting

, and in 1908, it established the

National

Bison

Range refuge in Montana to protect that

endangered species

The refuge system continued to expand later in the

century, with a primary emphasis on migratory waterfowl.

In 1929 Congress passed the Migratory Bird Convention

Act, followed by the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act

of 1934, which provided funding for waterfowl reserves.

Wetlands

now make up roughly 75 percent of the national

wildlife refuges and serve as linked management units along

the major waterfowl flyways.

The second focus in the expansion of the refuge system

has been the need to protect endangered and

rare species

Several acts have been passed for this purpose, going as far

back as the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, but most

recently the

Endangered Species Act

of 1973. For example,

the

whooping crane

is protected by a series of national

wildlife refuges in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas which are

linked to

wildlife management

areas in Kansas and Ne-

braska, and these are linked to a national wildlife area in

Saskatchewan and their primary breeding grounds in a Cana-

dian

national park

A third recent focus has been on the addition of high-

latitude

wilderness

in Alaska. In 1980 Congress passed the

Alaska National Interest Conservation Lands Act which

added roughly 54 million acres (22 million ha) of Alaskan

land to the national

wildlife refuge

system.

The refuge system now consists of slightly over 400

refuges, which encompass 99 million acres (40 million ha)

of land in parcels ranging from 2.5 acres (1 ha) to 17 million

acres (7 million ha) in size. It is administered by the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service

, which was consolidated under

the

U.S. Department of the Interior

in 1940. As it is offi-

cially written, the mandate is to provide, preserve, restore,

and manage a national network of land and water for the

benefit of society. The wording of the mandate has resulted

in an open policy approach, and NWRs have been used

for a variety of activities, some of which seem to many

incompatible with the ideal of a refuge. For example, a

consequence of having financial support from the sale of

961

duck stamps has been the opening of refuges to waterfowl

hunting. Other activities, such as

fertilizer runoff

and other

agricultural pollution

have seriously impacted the

ecologi-

cal integrity

of several reserves in the western United States,

including

Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge

in Califor-

nia’s San Joaquin Valley.

Perhaps the most significant test of the government’s

ability to maintain the ecological integrity of the refuge

system came over the fight to open the

Arctic National

Wildlife Refuge

for oil exploration. This is the second larg-

est reserve in the system, and perhaps the most spectacular

in terms of wilderness values. Although the proposal had

the support of two successive Presidents, Congress rejected

it. Critics argued that it was inconsistent to maintain that

oil production would benefit the country when it was ear-

marked for export. And the disaster caused by the

Exxon

Valdez

made oil companies’ claims of environmental

sensitivity seem to lack credibility.

The general challenges now facing the refuge system

arise both from pressure to develop in order to accommodate

increased visitor demand and the vague criteria defined in

the National Wildlife Refuge Administration Act of 1966

for multiple use. See also Forest Service; Migration; National

Park Service; Oil drilling; Pinchot, Gifford; Wilderness

Study Area; Wildlife management

[David A. Duffus]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Reed, N. P., and D. Drabelle. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984.

ERIODICALS

Doherty, J. “Refuges on the Rocks.” Audubon 85 (July 1983): 4, 6, 74–117.

“The Wildlife Refuges (National Wildlife Refuge System).” Wilderness 47

(Fall 1983): 2–38.

Native landscaping

Landscaping with native plants (also called indigenous

plants) can help improve the

environment

in several ways.

North America is home to thousands of indigenous plants

that over many thousands of years have evolved and adapted

to specific North American habitats such as prairies, decidu-

ous forests, deserts, or coastal plains. However, many plants

that are common today were brought to North America

from different biogeographic areas by European and Asian

immigrants. Some of the most common landscaping plants

used in North America today, such as zinnias (Zinnia elegans)

or Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), are not native to areas

where they now thrive.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Native landscaping

Plants brought from their native

habitat

to another

ecosystem

are called non-native or alien plants. For exam-

ple, early colonists brought with them seeds from their

homes in Europe to plant for food or use for landscaping.

Likewise, some native North American plants, such as

to-

bacco

Nicotiana sp.), were taken back to Europe. Many of

these plants thrived in their new homes.

While new plants were being imported, increased colo-

nization altered the character of the land in North America.

Forests were felled and prairies plowed under to convert

large swatches of land to farming. Some of the newly intro-

duced plants grew better under these altered conditions than

did native North American plants. Some

species

of non-

native plants begin to take over the habitat of native plants,

forcing the native plants out. Sometimes this was intentional,

as when a non-native plant was grown for food or planted

for landscaping. Other times, it was accidental, as when a

non-native plant used in landscaping escaped the garden

and began to grow uncontrolled in the wild.

One way to maintain native plants is to set aside large

nature

preserves and protected parks where native plants

can grow undisturbed. Native landscaping hopes to protect

our plant heritage in another way, by planting native species

in home gardens and landscaped areas such as the grounds

around corporate headquarters, on college campuses, and in

city parks. Native landscaping in many cases saves water,

reduces

pesticide

use, and maintains unique systems of in-

digenous plants and animals.

Landscaping around urban and suburban homes usu-

ally employs only several dozen kinds of plants, from turf

grass to evergreens for foundation plantings to decorative

flowers. This typical landscape supports little variety in insect

and animal life. Lawns and evergreen hedges offer little

protective cover for small mammals, and streams or ponds

that provide water and a home for animals are often diverted

or drained to make way for development. Gardeners may

plant beds of decorative annual flowers, but these are usually

not adequate for feeding bees, butterflies, and other insects

that depend on nectar.

Native plants, on the other hand, have evolved in

complex communities. Often the land can support a greater

variety of native plant species. In some cases these plant

communities naturally enrich the

soil

to make it fertile

enough to support still more species. These communities

shelter a variety of animals and insects that in turn help

plant species thrive by pollinating the plants and distributing

their seeds. The plants and animals are tied together in

ecosystems where all have evolved to live with specific natural

conditions (for example, high soil acidity, low rainfall, or

high mineral content of the soil).

The number of different species of plants and animals

that form an ecological community determines the

biodiver-

962

sity

of that community. Many urban and suburban land-

scapes have low biodiversity, because they support only a

few different species. Even landscaped lawns and gardens

that support a high level of biodiversity are considered of low

value by ecologists when the plants are almost entirely alien.

Native landscaping helps to develop biocommunities

that improve the

ecological integrity

of the land. The bio-

diversity of the area returns more closely to its original state.

This is considered a desirable goal by ecologists. Often when

native plants are grown in their natural habitat, they require

fewer resources (water,

fertilizer

) than alien species because

they have evolved to suit the natural conditions of the area.

For example, the turf grass that covers most American yards

evolved in the cool, rainy summers of Northern Europe.

Consequently, in many parts of the United States there is

inadequate natural rainfall in the summer for this grass to

thrive and, people must water their lawns to keep the non-

native grass green and healthy. Alien flowers and non-native

ornamental trees may also be more susceptible to disease

and pests. Native landscaping is a valuable way to cut back

on the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, as well as

water, because native plants in the proper site can support

themselves without this supplemental care.

In some cases, plants introduced from other places

have become pests, growing abundantly and choking off

native growth. These plants are called invasive plants, be-

cause they invade or take over the habitat of native plants.

One example is

purple loosestrife

(Lythrum salicaria), an

ornamental plant brought from Europe in the 1800s. It has

grown so well in some areas of North America that it is

now a significant threat to the biodiversity of wetland habi-

tats. Alien insects that arrive on introduced plants can also

threaten native plants with

extinction

. Native landscapers

help root out invasive plants and restore the original plant

communities.

The trend toward landscaping with native plants

emerged in the United States in the 1980s and 1990s. Some

communities (for example in the San Francisco Bay area)

now have local native plant societies that hold annual sales

of native plants to help the gardener interested in native

landscaping. The first step towards native landscaping is

usually to reduce the amount of lawn. Some gardeners have

replaced traditional turf lawn with a meadow or

prairie

planting of native grasses. Some environments, such as

de-

sert

, do not naturally support any kind of grass. Native

landscapers in these regions tend to favor drought-tolerant

perennials. In dry areas, landscaping with native plants can

be an important element in landscaping for

water conser-

vation

(called xeriscaping).

Another move toward native landscaping is to border

a turf lawn with plantings of native perennials, shrubs, and

trees. Many native plants are quite ornamental, but the native

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Natural resources

landscaper may also select plants based on kind of ecological

community they support. Native planting might include

shrubs that bear fruits eaten by local birds and mammals,

early spring wildflowers that provide nectar for insects just

emerging from winter dormancy, or nut trees to feed squirrels

through the winter. A native landscape might also include

flowers that will attract local butterflies. The resulting land-

scape may prove to easier and cheaper to maintain than a

traditional planting, need few or no pesticides or fertilizers,

use less water, and provide food and habitat for a diverse

animal population.

[Angela Woodward]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Stein, Sara. Noah’s Garden. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993.

Stein, Sara. Planting Noah’s Garden. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

Wasowski, Andy, and Sally Wasowski. The Landscaping Revolution. Chi-

cago: Contemporary Books, 2000.

ERIODICALS

“Going Native: Biodiversity in Our Own Backyards.” Brooklyn Botanic

Garden Handbook 140 (1994).

“Native Perennials.” Brooklyn Botanic Garden Handbook 146 (1996).

Orecklin, Michele, and David Schwartz. “Say Goodbye to Grass” Time

(July 2, 2001): 56.

THER

Environmental Protection Agency. Landscaping with Native Plants. January

24, 2000 [cited July 2002]. <http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/native plants/in-

dex.html>.

Natural gas

Naturally occurring gas that primarily contains

methane

. A fossil fuel like

coal

and

petroleum

, it is the hottest

and cleanest burning of these fuels and is increasingly touted

as a substitute for petroleum. It is, however, an explosion

hazard in coal mines and an unwanted byproduct of

anaero-

bic digestion

in landfills. It is most commonly found with

petroleum or at depths which vaporize oil. Use is hampered

transportation

difficulties and risks, and thus it is limited

to pipelines and compression tanks. Huge quantities exist

as unconventional sources, including

coal gasification

and

conversion to

methanol

. See also Liquified natural gas

Natural radiation

see

Background radiation

Natural resource accounting

see

Environmental accounting

963

Natural resources

Natural resources, unlike man-made resources, exist inde-

pendently of human labor. Natural resources can be viewed

as an endowment or a gift to humankind. These resources

are, however, not unlimited and must be used with care.

Some natural resources are called “fund resources” because

they can be exhausted through use, like the burning of

fossil

fuels

. Other fund resources such as metals can be dissipated

or wasted if they are discarded instead of being reused or

recycled. Some natural resources can be used up like fund

resources, but they can renew themselves if they’re not com-

pletely destroyed. Examples of the latter would include the

soil

, forests, and fisheries.

Because of

population growth

and a rising standard

of living, the demand for natural resources is steadily increas-

ing. For example, the rising demand for minerals, if contin-

ued, will deplete the known and expected reserves within

the coming decades.

The world’s industrialized nations are consuming

non-

renewable resources

at an accelerating pace, with the

United States ranking first on a per capita basis. With only

5% of the global population, Americans consumes 30% of

the world’s resources. Because of their tremendous demand

for goods, Americans have also created more waste than is

generated by any other country. The

environment

in the

United States has been degraded with an ever-increasing

volume and variety of contaminants. In particular, a complex

of synthetic

chemicals

with a vast potential for harmful

effects on human health has been created. The long-term

effects of a low dosage of many of these chemicals in our

environment will not be known for decades. The three most

important causes for global environmental problems today

are population growth, excessive resource consumption, and

high levels of

pollution

. All of these threaten the natural

resource base.

[Terence H. Cooper]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Craig, J. R. Resources of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,

1988.

Meadows, D. H., et al. The Limits to Growth. New York: Universe

Books, 1972.

Simmons, I. G. Earth, Air, and Water: Resources and Environment in the

Late 20th Century. London: Edward Arnold, 1991.

THER

World Resources, 1990–91: A Report. New York: Oxford University Press,

1990.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Natural Resources Defense Council

Founded in 1970, the Natural Resources Defense Council

(NRDC) is a major national environmental organization

active in most areas of concern to environmentalists and

conservationists. It boasts a membership of 500,000 nation-

wide and had an annual budget in 2001 of nearly $41 million

dollars. These resources are employed in the organization’s

quest to use science and law to create “a world in which

human beings live in harmony with our environment.”

NRDC seeks a sustainable society and believes that eco-

nomic growth can continue only if it does not destroy the

natural resources that fuel it. NRDC’s stated goals include

access to pure air and water and safe food for every human

being. NRDC’s philosophy is based increasingly on a belief

in the inherent sanctity of the natural

environment

. As its

mission statement proclaims, NRDC ultimately “strives to

help create a new way of life for humankind, one that can

be sustained indefinitely without fouling or depleting the

resources that support all life on Earth.” The organization

is headquartered in New York City, with regional offices in

Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

Generally regarded as an influential and highly effec-

tive mainstream environmental organization, NRDC’s suc-

cesses have often come from its expertise in lobbying govern-

mental officials, helping to draft environmental laws, and

working with public utility officials to reduce wasteful and

environmentally destructive practices. NRDC has also made

considerable use of the judicial system in defense of environ-

mental causes and retains on its staff some of the nation’s

top environmental lawyers.

Among its many notable achievements, NRDC has

been instrumental in setting national standards for building

and appliance efficiency. It collaborated with over a dozen

states and Canadian provinces on the reform of

electric

utilities

and helped the Soviet Union design an electrical

planning program in the late 1980s. NRDC has helped

protect dozens of national forests from abusive

logging

practices, including forests in the Greater Yellowstone

eco-

system

and old-growth forests in the Sierra Nevada. In

addition, NRDC led the fight for the national phase-out of

lead

from

gasoline

and lobbied intensively for passage of

the 1990

Clean Air Act

. It was a sponsor of the Nuclear

Non-Proliferation Act and helped prove that an under-

ground

nuclear test ban

treaty could be verified.

The NRDC is active in several areas, including Air

and Energy; Global Warming; Clean Water and Oceans;

Wildlife and Fish; Parks, Forests, and Wildlands; Toxic

Chemicals

and Health;

Nuclear Weapons

and Waste;

Cities and Green Living; and Environmental Legislation. Its

ongoing projects are numerous and include the continuing

protection of the

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

and Cali-

964

fornia coastal areas from

oil drilling

. NRDC continues to

monitor the policies and practices of the

Environmental

Protection Agency

(EPA) and has convinced the EPA to

strengthen its rules regarding the reporting of releases of

toxic substances into the environment. It has lobbied the

government to designate new funds for the protection of

endangered species

; to include environmental standards

and controls in the

North American Free Trade

Agreement

; to close loopholes in proposed rules for control-

ling

acid rain

; and to strengthen

automobile pollution

standards, as well as on many other environmental issues.

In addition, the organization publishes a quarterly magazine

of environmental thought and opinion, entitled OnEarth

(formerly the Amicus Journal).

Internationally, NRDC seeks the eventual elimination

of nuclear weapons, the protection of

habitat

and ecosys-

tems in developing countries, and the worldwide phaseout

chlorofluorocarbons

. It promotes alternative agricultural

techniques to reduce the use of pesticides, the strengthening

of regulations governing the disposal of waste in landfills,

and the testing and treatment of poor children for lead

poisoning

. NRDC is urging states and municipalities to

stop the

ocean dumping

of sewage

sludge

and encouraging

mass transit

programs as an alternative to automobiles and

new highways.

The NRDC urged President Bill Clinton to create six

new National Monuments and protect 4 million new acres

from development in the United States. By 2002, the NRDC

had initiated a “BioGems Defender” program, which relies

upon the e-mails of 250,000 members to pressure lawmakers

to protect endangered areas or

species

. With the help of

actor Robert Redford, who e-mailed letters on behalf of the

BioGems program, the NRDC helped protect the Arctic

National Wildlife Refuge

(ANWR) from oil drilling in

2002. The NRDC also made headlines in 2002 when it

successfully sued the George W. Bush Administration, under

the Freedom of Information Act, to release documents pro-

duced by the National

Energy Policy

Development Group

concerning U.S. energy policies.

[Lawrence J Biskowski and Douglas Dupler]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

Natural Resources Defense Council, 40 W 20th Street, New York, NY

10011 (212) 727-2700, Fax: (212) 727-1773, Email: nrdcinfo@nrdc.org,

<www.nrdc.org/>

Natural selection

see

Evolution

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Nature Conservancy, The

Nature

The word nature stems from the Latin natura, whose mean-

ing ranges from “birth” to “the order of things.” In English,

nature comprises all plants, animals, and ecosystems, as well

as the biological and nonbiological materials and processes

of our planet. This range of meaning narrows if we consider

the use of the word natural. Something is natural if it is not

artificial, if it pertains to or comes from the natural world.

When we speak of bears, mountains, or

evolution

and say,

“they are natural,” we mean they are neither human nor

created by humans. Thus the concept of nature is often

restricted to beings, things, or processes which are not human

in origin.

Conceptual and empirical inquiries into nature loosely

center on eight questions. The first question is a scientific

one, which simply asks what constitutes nature: What are

its essential properties and how shall we classify them?

The second seeks purpose in nature, asking whether the

earth is a designed home for humankind or an accident

of cosmic history. A third question explores the effect of

the natural

environment

on human physiology, psychology

and culture, examining whether nature determines who

we are or constrains what we can do. A fourth examines

the metaphors used to understand nature: Is nature an

organism subject to death or a machine of fungible parts?

The fifth question studies how nature changes: Is it

dynamic, changing as a result of internal processes, or static,

changing in response to external human disturbances? A

sixth surveys how people have transformed the natural

world, and the seventh queries whether human beings

and their societies are part of or separate from nature. The

final question investigates whether nature has a structure of

intrinsic moral values: Does nature have values or a good

of its own, and if so, should human beings respect these

values or promote this good?

We lack unambiguous answers to these questions,

though the questions are important in themselves, for they

help us clarify our assumptions about nature. Humans, for

example, have emerged from the evolutionary processes of

nature. Thus our thoughts and actions are certainly natural,

yet our societies and technologies are unique in the natural

world, and the scope of our impact on nature is without

precedent in other

species

. It seems that while we are part

of nature biologically, we are separate from the rest of nature

in our social and technological characteristics, and to declare

humanity natural or non-natural is unhelpful. The best alter-

native may be to accept the ambiguity of our relationship

to nature, conceiving of humankind as relatively natural and

non-natural depending on the time, place, and activity. See

also Bioregionalism; Deep ecology; Ecosophy; Environmen-

965

tal attitudes/values; Environmental ethics; Environmen-

talism; Humanism; Speciesism

[William S. Lynn]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Collingwood, R. G. The Idea of Nature. Oxford, UK: Oxford University

Press, 1945.

Glacken, C. J. Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western

Thought From Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1967.

Lyon, T. J., ed. This Incomparable Lande: A Book of American Nature Writing.

New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1989.

Lyon, T. J., and P. Stine, eds. On Nature’s Terms. College Station, TX:

TexasA&MUniversity Press, 1992.

Nash, R. F. The Rights of Nature. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1989.

Williams, R. “Nature.” In Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Nature Conservancy, The

The Nature Conservancy is America’s fourth-largest envi-

ronmental organization, with 1 million members and a bud-

get of over $300 million. It owns or helps manage over 1,400

nature preserves worldwide, covering more than 12 million

acres (4.8 million ha) (2 million acres [809,000 ha] of which

is owned outright by the organization) in the United States

alone. It is the largest private system of nature sanctuaries

in the world, helping like-minded partner organizations to

preserve more than 80 million acres (3.2 million ha) (7

million acres [2.8 million ha] of which The Nature Conser-

vancy manages directly) in the Asia Pacific, Canada, the

Caribbean and Latin America.

The organization is dedicated to protecting nature and

its animal inhabitants by preserving their habitats. This is

accomplished with a strategic, science-based planning pro-

cess, called Conservation by Design. Conservation by Design

helps The Nature Conservancy identify the highest-priority

places (landscapes and seascapes) that, if conserved, promise

to ensure

biodiversity

(the variety of life that can be found

on Earth—plants, animals,

fungi

, and micro-organisms—

as well as to the communities that they form and the habitats

in which they live) over the long term. Conservation is

achieved by the organization through: buying and managing

ecologically important areas; negotiating agreements to man-

age areas without holding title to them, partnerships or

conservation easements

; offering training to partner orga-

nizations and government agencies that manage land; edu-

cating people who live in ecologically sensitive areas about

the importance of biodiversity and helping them to live in

better harmony with the natural

environment

; working with

resource-based industries to alter their business practices to

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

Dr. Scott Nearing

have less environmental impact; and helping government

agencies work together and better allocate public resources

toward conservation.

The organization was incorporated in 1951 by Ameri-

can Richard Pough, who had been inspired by the British

government’s nature preserves of the same name. Unlike the

English version, Pough’s organization was funded privately.

The Conservancy’s early years were difficult financially, but

Pough eventually secured two major endowments that made

the society solvent: a $100,000 donation from Mrs. DeWitt

Wallace, co-owner of Readers Digest, and a $55-million be-

quest from Minnesota Mining heiress Katharine Ordway.

Most of the latter money went for land purchases. Subse-

quent purchases have acquired millions of acres, although

some tracts are later traded or sold to the government, indi-

viduals, or other environmental organizations.

One example of The Nature Conservancy’s interna-

tional programs is the Debt for Nature Swaps that have been

contracted in Central America. These allow The Nature

Conservancy, in conjunction with the Department of De-

fense, to conduct ecological inventories and supervise over

25 million acres (10 million ha). Other projects, such as

Parks in Peril, have given The Conservancy charge of over

28 million acres (11.3 million ha) in Latin America and the

Caribbean. In the United States, a partnership with

Ducks

Unlimited

restored riparian forests and

wetlands

in several

states. A three-year program called The Rivers of the Rock-

ies, spent $5 million to preserve 20 sites along Colorado

rivers and tributaries. Similar projects are underway in other

states as well.

The Nature Conservancy cooperates with federal land

and

wildlife

agencies, as well as other environmental associa-

tions, and is instrumental in helping to identify land of

critical environmental interest. In addition to its local and

foreign activities in land preservation, the Nature Conser-

vancy identifies and protects animal life, especially the “rarest

of the rare,” those

species

most in need of preservation.

In November, 2001, the Nature Conservancy and the

United States

Forest Service

signed a Memorandum of

Understanding (MOU) to promote cooperation and partner-

ship as the two organizations work to preserve, protect, and

monitor forests and grassland ecosystems. The MOU is in

effect for five years, during which The Nature Conservancy

and the Forest Service will work together to, among other

things, protect migratory bird

habitat

, prevent the spread

of invasive species, and to carry out prescribed burns in

natural areas to promote biodiversity and

ecosystem health

The two organizations will also jointly establish outreach,

educational, and training programs for communities, and

will promote partnerships and liaisons with foreign and local

governments, tribal interests, landowners, and non-govern-

ment agencies.

966

In response to its mission statement, which is “to

preserve the plants, animals and natural communities that

represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the lands

and waters they need to survive.” The Nature Conservancy

instigated its “$1 Billion Campaign,” which commits the

organization to the investment of one billion dollars to save

200 of “the world’s last great places,". As of the middle of

2002, more than $960 million had been raised toward this

goal. The organization maintains its Heritage database at its

headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, in which

endangered

species

are ranked by status both globally and within

each state.

[Marie H. Bundy]

RGANIZATIONS

The Nature Conservancy, 1815 N. Lynn Street, Arlington, VA USA 22209,

<http://www.tnc.org>

Nature reserve

see

Biosphere reserve

Dr. Scott Nearing (1883 – 1983)

American conservationist

A prolific and iconoclastic writer, a socialist, and a conserva-

tionist, Scott Nearing—along with his wife Helen—is now

considered the “great-grandparent” of the back-to-the-land

movement. Nearing was born August 6, 1883, in Morris

Run, Pennsylvania. He is the author of nearly fifty books

and thousands of pamphlets and articles, some of which

have become classics of modern

environmentalism

Originally a law student at the University of Pennsyl-

vania, Nearing received his B.S. from that university in 1905

and a Ph.D. in economics in 1909. He was the secretary of

the Pennsylvania Child Labor Commission from 1905 to

1907. He taught economics at the Wharton School, at

Swarthmore College, and at the University of Toledo in

Toledo, Ohio. In 1915, he was dismissed from his position

at the Wharton School for his politics, particularly his posi-

tion on child labor. A pacifist, he was arrested during World

War I and charged with obstructing recruitment for the

armed forces. He was a Socialist candidate for United States

Congress in 1919. His socialism, his pacifism, and his politics

in general made it increasingly difficult for him to find and

maintain teaching positions after 1917, and he supported

himself for the rest of his life by writing, lecturing, and

farming.

In 1932, Nearing and his wife bought a small, dilapi-

dated farm in Vermont, hoping, in their words, “to live