Environmental Encyclopedia

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Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

program for Environmental Biology includes the work of

three laboratories. The Laboratory of Molecular Genetics

studies the basic mechanisms of the mutational process,

fundamental mechanisms of genomic

stability

, and the im-

pact of environmental agents on the genetic apparatus. The

Laboratory of Signal Induction studies the effects of environ-

mental agents on physiological processes, and the Laboratory

of Structural Biology studies environmentally associated dis-

eases resulting from perturbations in biological.

The second DIR program, for Environmental Dis-

eases and Medicine, includes three branches:

Epidemiology

Biostatistics, and Comparative Medicine. The Epidemiol-

ogy Branch studies the impacts of environmental toxicants

on human health and reproduction using sensitive health

endpoints, susceptible sub-groups, and highly exposed popu-

lations; four laboratories support this research. The Labora-

tory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology devel-

ops an understanding of the basic mechanisms underlying

normal and abnormal development and reproduction. The

Laboratory of Pulmonary Pathobiology studies the respira-

tory tract system biology at the cellular, biochemical, and

molecular level in order to develop an understanding of

pathogenic mechanisms involved in the onset of diseases of

the airways. The Laboratory of Molecular Carcinogenesis

studies the mechanisms of environmental carcinogenesis by

identifying the target genes in the process and by defining

how

chemicals

act on these genes to influence

cancer

devel-

opment. The Laboratory of Environmental Carcinogenesis

and Mutagenesis focuses on chemical, physical, and environ-

mental causes of cancer and uses transgenic and computer

models to distinguish carcinogens and the mechanisms by

which they act.

The second branch of the program for Environmental

Diseases and Medicine, Biostatistics, conducts research in

biomathematics and population genetics and in design and

analysis of laboratory animal toxicology and carcinogenicity

studies to develop methodology for epidemiological and clin-

ical studies, and to provide statistical and computational

support to NIEHS scientists. The third branch, Compara-

tive Medicine, provides services and collaborative support

to NIEHS scientists in the areas of animal facilities manage-

ment, animal procurement, health surveillance and disease

diagnosis, clinical veterinary services, rodent breeding, tech-

nical and surgical assistance, and quality assurance support.

The third DIR program, that for Environmental Toxi-

cology, uses the research conducted at three laboratories.

Laboratory of Computational Biology and

Risk Analysis

conducts and coordinates research into the development and

use of mechanistic data and models for characterizing and

quantifying human health risks associated with exposure to

environmental agents. It maintains a research program in

computer-based mathematical

modeling

, ranging from

947

modeling cellular and molecular levels to whole animals and

focusing on describing and evaluating chemical structures,

biological response mechanisms, and their perturbations by

potentially hazardous environmental agents. It also develops

and uses cellular and molecular markers to investigate the

link between environmental exposures and toxicity. It pro-

vides approaches for the evaluation of human susceptibility

factors that affect toxic environmental effects.

Two other laboratories aid DIR’s Environmental Tox-

icology program. The Laboratory of Toxicology conducts

studies to characterize chemical toxic effects, including im-

mune, reproductive, genetic, respiratory, and nervous system

toxicities. It studies interactions of chemicals and metabolites

with subcellular macromolecules, and it develops methods

for characterizing toxicity of chemicals and other agents.

The Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry studies

the exposure and disposition of environmental chemicals; it

studies the

enzyme

systems involved in the

metabolism

of environmental chemicals and drugs; and, it studies the

mechanisms responsible for the toxic effects of xenobiotics

and their metabolites, including photochemical and free rad-

ical mechanisms. The lab utilizes alternative model systems

from comparative and marine biology to study the pharma-

cology and toxicology of chemicals and drugs, and it provides

chemical support for NIEHS scientists, including the assess-

ment of chemical purity, stability, and biotransformation.

NIEHS sponsors research on the effects of environ-

mental impacts in several areas. Some research topics include

birth and developmental defects and sterility; women’s health

issues, including breast cancer susceptibility and osteoporo-

sis; and Alzheimer’s and other neurologic disorders. NIEHS

sponsors research on hazards to the poor due to likely expo-

sure to

lead

paint, hazardous chemicals at work, air and

water pollution

, and

hazardous waste

sites in their com-

munities; some researchers focus on

agricultural pollution

including natural materials (e.g., grain dust) and

agricul-

tural chemicals

, while other researchers study signal error,

i.e., whether environmental chemicals can mimic hormonal

growth factors and contribute to the development of cancer

or reproductive disorders. Still other research investigates

animal alternatives, to reduce the number of animals used

in research, to refine the design of experiments to obtain

more information at lower cost, and to replace animals with

microbial and tissue cultures. Some research identifies bio-

markers to measure the uptake and exposure to environmen-

tal

toxins

NIEHS is the headquarters for the National Toxicol-

ogy Program (NTP), an interagency program within

DHHS. The NTP was established in 1978 to coordinate

toxicology research and testing activities within the Depart-

ment of Health and Human Services, to provide information

about potentially toxic chemicals to regulatory and research

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

agencies, and to strengthen the scientific basis of toxicology.

The NTP coordinates toxicology activities of NIEHS, the

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of

the Centers for Disease Control (NIOSH/CDC), and the

National Center for Toxicological Research of the

Food

and Drug Administration

(NCTR/FDA). The director of

NIEHS is also the director of the NTP. Primary research

support within NIEHS for NTP is in the Environmental

Toxicology Program.

The Superfund Basic Research Program (SBRP), in

coordination with the U.S.

Environmental Protection

Agency

(U.S. EPA), is also administered by NIEHS. The

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)

of 1986 established a university-based program of basic re-

search within NIEHS. The SBRP receives funding from

the U.S. EPA through an interagency agreement using Su-

perfund Trust monies. The funding is used to study human

health effects of hazardous substances in the

environment

especially those found at uncontrolled, leaking waste disposal

sites. The primary objectives of SBRP are to find methods,

through basic research, to reduce the amount and toxicity

of hazardous substances and to prevent adverse human health

effects. The SARA legislation specifically mandates that the

basic research program administered by NIEHS focus on:

methods and technologies to detect hazardous substances in

the environment; development of advanced techniques for

the detection, assessment, and evaluation of the effects on

human health of hazardous substances; basic biological,

chemical, and physical methods to reduce the amount and

toxicity of hazardous substances.

In support of these mandates, NIEHS supports proj-

ects in the areas of engineering, ecological, and hydrogeolog-

ical research in conjunction with biomedically related com-

ponents, thus encouraging collaborative efforts among

researchers. Specific research areas included in the SBRP

include health effects, exposure/risk assessment,

ecology

fate and transport,

remediation

bioremediation

, analyti-

cal chemistry, biomarkers, epidemiology, metals, and waste

site characterization.

NIEHS was also given responsibility for initiating a

training grants program under SARA. The major objective

of the NIEHS Worker Education and Training Program,

initiated in 1987, is to prevent work-related harm by assisting

the training of workers to know how to protect themselves

and their communities from exposure to hazardous materials

during hazardous waste operations, hazardous materials

transportation

, environmental restoration of

nuclear

weapons

facilities, or chemical emergency response.

Through this program, non-profit organizations with a dem-

onstrated record of providing occupational safety and health

education develop safety and health curriculum for workers

involved in handling hazardous waste or in responding to

948

emergency releases of hazardous materials. Information con-

cerning this program is disseminated through the National

Clearinghouse for Worker Safety and Health Training.

The SBRP, through an Interagency Agreement, pro-

vides additional training by support of the NIOSH Hazard-

ous Substance Continuing Education Program (HST), initi-

ated in 1988 for hazardous substance professionals, and the

NIOSH Hazardous Substance Academic Training Program

(HSAT), a graduate academic program initiated in 1993

allowing occupational safety and health professionals to spe-

cialize in the study of hazardous substances.

In coordination with the Department of Energy,

NIEHS is overseeing the implementation of the Electric and

Magnetic Fields (EMF) Research and Public Information

Dissemination (RAPID) program, established by the 1992

Energy Policy

Act. The EMF RAPID program is a five-

year federally coordinated effort to conduct research on po-

tential effects on biological systems of exposure to 60 Hz

electric and magnetic fields produced by the generation,

transmission, and use of electric energy and to evaluate devel-

oping technologies for characterizing and mitigating these

fields. The program also involves collection, compilation,

publication, and dissemination of information to the public

concerning possible human effects of electric and magnetic

fields; types and extent of human exposure to electrical and

magnetic fields in various occupational and residential set-

tings; technologies to measure and characterize electric and

magnetic fields; and methods to assess and manage exposure

to electric and magnetic fields.

The NIEHS Clearinghouse is an information service

staffed with scientists who respond to questions concerning

environmental health issues. Information on research is also

provided through an NIEHS-sponsored journal, Environ-

mental Health Perspectives.

[Judith Sims]

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233,

Research Triangle Park, NC USA 27709 (919) 541-3345, <http://

www.niehs.nih.gov>.

National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH) is a research institute created by the

Occupational

Safety and Health Act

of 1970, and since 1973 it has been

a division of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). The

purpose of NIOSH is to gather data documenting incidences

of occupational disease, exposure, and injury in the United

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National lakeshore

States. After gathering and evaluating data, the agency devel-

ops “Criteria Documents” for specific hazards; in some cases

the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) has used these documents as the basis for specific

legal standards to be followed by industry. NIOSH has

developed databases which are available to other federal

agencies, as well as state governments, academic researchers,

industry, and private citizens. The organization also conducts

seminars for those in the field of occupational safety and

health, as well as for industry, labor, and other government

agencies. NIOSH prepares various publications for sale to

the public, and it provides a telephone hotline in its Cincin-

nati, Ohio office to answer inquiries.

In April of 1996, NIOSH and the Occupational Safety

and Health Administration (OSH) commemorated their

twenty-fifth anniversary in an event that was jointly sponsored

by those two agencies and by the Smithsonian Institute. CDC

Director David Satcher stated, “Thanks in large measure to

NIOSH’s efforts, the Nation has made dramatic advance-

ments in recognizing that safe and healthful workplaces are

an integral part of good public health, and that the tools we

use to curb infectious diseases also work against occupational

diseases—knowledge, timely intervention, and prevention.”

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 4676 Columbia

Pkwy., Cincinnati, OH USA 45226 Fax: 513-533-8573, Toll Free: (800)

35-NIOSH, Email: eidtechinfo@cdc.gov, <http://www.cdc.gov/niosh>

National lakeshore

National lakeshores are part of a system of United States

coastlines administered by the

National Park Service

and

preserved for their scenic, recreational, and

habitat

re-

sources. The national lakeshore system is an extension of

the national seashores system established in the 1930s to

preserve the nation’s dwindling patches of publicly-owned

coastline on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts. Since

before 1930 the movement to preserve both seashores and

lakeshores has been a conservationist response to the rapid

privatization of coastlines by industrial interests and private

home owners. In 1992 the United States had four designated

National Lakeshores: Indiana

Dunes

on the southern tip of

Lake Michigan, Sleeping Bear Dunes on Lake Michigan’s

eastern shore, and the Apostle Islands and Pictured Rocks,

both on Lake Superior’s southern shore.

Attention focused on disappearing

Great Lakes

shorelines, sometimes called the United States’ “fourth coast-

line,” as midwestern development pressures increased after

World War II. During the 1950s lakeshore industrial sites

became especially valuable with the impending opening of

949

the

St. Lawrence Seaway

. The seaway, giving landlocked

lake ports access to Atlantic trade from Europe and Asia,

promised to boost midwestern industry considerably. Facing

this threat to remaining wild lands, the

National Park

Service conducted a survey in 1957-58, attempting to iden-

tify and catalog the Great Lakes’ remaining natural shoreline.

The survey produced a list of 66 sites qualified for preserva-

tion as natural, scenic, or recreational areas. Of these, five

sites were submitted to Congress in the spring of 1959.

The Indiana Dunes site was a spearhead for the move-

ment to designate national lakeshores. Of all the proposed

preserves, this one was immediately threatened in the 1950s

and 1960s by northern Indiana’s expanding steel industries.

Residents of neighboring Gary were eager for jobs and indus-

trial development, but conservationists and politicians of

nearby Chicago argued that most of the lake was already

developed and lobbied intensely for preservation. The Indi-

ana Dunes provided a rare patch of undeveloped acreage

that residents of nearby cities valued for

recreation

. Equally

important, the dunes and their intradunal ponds,

grass-

lands

, and mixed deciduous forests provided habitat for

animals and migratory birds, most of whose former range

already held the industrial complexes of Gary and Chicago.

In addition, the dunes harbored patches of relict boreal

habitat left over from the last

ice age

. After years of debate,

the Indiana Dunes and Great Sleeping Bear Dunes National

Lakeshores were established in 1966, with the remaining

two lakeshores designated four years later.

The other three national lakeshores are less threatened

by industrial development than Indiana Dunes, but they pre-

serve important scenic and historic resources. Sleeping Bear

Dunes contains some of Michigan’s sandy pine forests as well

arid

land forbs, grasses, and sedges that are rare in the rest

of the Midwest. Two prized aspects of this national lakeshore

are its spectacular bluffs and active dunes, some standing hun-

dreds of feet high along the edge of Lake Michigan.

Wisconsin’s Apostle Islands, a chain of 22 glacier-

scarred, rocky islands, bear evidence of perhaps 12,000 years

of human habitation and activity. However most of the

historic relics date from the nineteenth century, when log-

gers, miners, and sailors left their mark. In this area the

coniferous boreal forest of Canada meets the deciduous Mid-

western forests, producing an unusual mixture of sugar ma-

ple, hemlock, white cedar, and black spruce forests. Nearly

species

of orchids find refuge in these islands. Pictured

Rocks National Lakeshore preserves extensive historic navi-

gation relics, including sunken ships, along with its scenic

and recreational resources. See also Coniferous forest; Con-

servation; Ecosystem; Glaciation; National Parks and Con-

servation Association; Privatization movement; Wilderness

[Mary Ann Cunningham Ph.D.]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Mining and Minerals Act (1970)

Grand Sable dunes in Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan. (Photograph by Rod Planck. Tom Stack & Associates. Reproduced

by permission.)

ESOURCES

OOKS

Cockrell, R. A Signature of Time and Eternity: The Administrative History

of Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Indiana. Omaha, NE: U.S. National

Park Service, Midwest Regional Office, 1988.

ERIODICALS

Bowles, M. L., et al. “Endangered Plant Inventory and Monitoring Strate-

gies at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.” Natural Areas Journal 6 (1986):

18–26.

Herbert, R. D., D. A. Wilcox, and N. B. Pavlovic. “Vegetation Patterns

in and among Pannes (Calcerious Intradunal Ponds) at the Indiana Dunes

National Lakeshore, Indiana.” American Midland Naturalist 116 (1986):

276–81.

National Marine Fisheries Service

see

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)

950

National Mining and Minerals Act

(1970)

The Mining and Minerals Policy Act of 1970 was the first

of a series of efforts by the United States Congress to address

the seeming lack of a coordinated and comprehensive federal

minerals policy. The act directed the Secretary of the Interior

to follow a policy that encouraged the private mining sector

in four ways: to develop a financially viable and stable domes-

tic mining sector, to develop domestic mineral sources in

an orderly manner, to conduct research to further “wise and

efficient use” of these minerals, and to develop methods of

mineral extraction and processing that would be as environ-

mentally benign as possible. Given the broad and vague

nature of these directives, it is difficult to determine what,

if any, effect the law has had. For example, the U.S. Depart-

ment of the Interior’s report on the bill found that it did

not provide the department any new authority. There was

one clear directive included in the law: the Secretary of the

Interior was to report to Congress annually on the mining

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

industry and to make any legislative recommendations to

help the industry at that time.

Two additional general mining policy laws were passed

within fifteen years of the Mining and Minerals Policy Act.

The National Materials and Minerals Policy, Research and

Development Act was passed in 1980. Like the 1970 Act,

this law was an effort to develop a coordinated national

minerals policy. But, like its predecessor, this law also had

little effect due to its lack of specifics. The 1984 National

Critical Materials Act underscored the concern among some

in Congress that the United States had become vulnerable,

due to foreign dependence, in the supply of such strategic

defense and high technology minerals as cobalt and platinum

group metals. This law was also filled with vague generalities,

though it did create a three-person National Critical Materi-

als Council and charged this Council with overseeing miner-

als policy. As with the prior two acts, the 1984 law has

seemingly had little effect.

The growing concern for mineral policy in the 1970s

and 1980s can be traced to three sources: administrative law

and capacity, environmental concerns, and national security

concerns. The federal government had little control over

mining policy. On federal lands, mining policy had been

essentially privatized by the 1872 Mining Law. Individuals

or private firms could stake claims on public lands and re-

move the minerals; the government received no royalties

and issued no permits. The mining policy regime was also

fragmented. Three agencies had major roles in mining policy:

the

Bureau of Land Management

, the Bureau of Mines,

and the United States

Geological Survey

. Throughout the

1970s and 1980s, concern for the

environment

grew in the

country, and a significant concern of environmentalists was

mining operations, which often generated large amounts of

pollution

and had significant effects on the land. Hence,

environmentalists successfully sought to restrict mining in

certain areas and regulate the mining that continued. Par-

tially in response to the reduced access and increased regula-

tion, the mining industry and its supporters began to focus

on the United States’s foreign dependence on

strategic min-

erals

. They argued that more lands should be open to min-

ing, and regulations should be relaxed. Despite the passage

of these three laws, though, no significant change in federal

mining policy has occurred. See also Environmental law;

Environmental policy; Natural resources

[Christopher McGrory Klyza]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Leshy, J. D. The Mining Law: A Study in Perpetual Motion. Washington,

DC: Resources for the Future, 1987.

951

National Ocean Service

see

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) is a multi-faceted agency of the United States

government that concerns itself with a variety of challenges,

from making five-day weather forecasts to protecting

sea

turtles

. Under the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA

is unusual because it functions not only as a service agency,

providing weather reports, for example, but also as a regula-

tory and research agency. Many of its regulatory functions

appear to overlap with those of the

Environmental Protec-

tion Agency

(EPA), and much of its research parallels that

of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

NOAA’s National Ocean Service, for example, assessed the

damage to the Alaskan coast and

wildlife

from the disastrous

oil spill of the

Exxon Valdez

; NOAA also monitors the

rate and speed of the earth’s rotation.

Created in 1807 by President Thomas Jefferson as the

National Ocean Service, its first duty was to survey the coasts

to set up shipping lanes for trade routes in the United States.

Later, its function as an air and sea chart-making agency,

when known as the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, was

in high demand, especially during World Wars I and II.

In 1970, when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration was instituted, it settled into five major ser-

vice branches and a NOAA Corps. The Corps, called “the

seventh and smallest uniformed service,” consists of about

400 men and women trained to perform diverse duties, such

as fly into the eye of a

hurricane

and make descents in

ocean submersibles to do deep ocean research.

NOAA’s five branches are as follows:

National Weather Service (NWS): For a long time, NOAA

was the U.S. Weather Bureau. NWS has provided daily

weather forecasts for several decades by gathering data from

manned weather forecast offices around the country. To

perfect its capability, to increase

accuracy

, and to lengthen

predictions for severe weather, NOAA is implementing a

long-term program to modernize the National Weather

Service by installing 1,000 automatic sensors in all the

states. Already the Hydrometeorological Information Cen-

ter can issue spring flood warnings from river forecast

centers well in advance of their occurrence. Nexrad ("Next

generation radar"), a new Doppler radar that can pick up

severe weather 125 mi (201 km) away, predicts tornadoes

with a 19-minute lead time, giving residents more time to

find shelter.

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National park

The Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research collects

data from polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites. These

not only provide televised weather pictures, but also moni-

tor elements of

climate

change (such as

greenhouse

gases

in the

stratosphere

). At NOAA’s Environmental

Research Labs, studies of the

ozone

layer are additionally

being conducted jointly with NASA; NOAA and Japan

have also joined forces to study the thermal vents 20,000

ft (6096 m) down in the Marianna Trench under the Pacific

Ocean. NOAA funds university research through the Na-

tional Sea Grant College Program and the National Under-

sea Research Program.

The National Environmental Satellite, Data and Informa-

tion Service (NESDIS), one of the world’s largest banks

of information on earth geophysics, solar activity, geomag-

netic variations, and paleoclimates, stores data collected

from NOAA’s satellites and environmental research labs.

The National Ocean Service still makes coastal charts for

trade ships as well as for weekend sailors. But now it also

assesses ocean and coastal

pollution

, protects

wetlands

and is charged with creating and maintaining sanctuaries

for various sea creatures including

whales

and living

coral reefs.

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) manages

fisheries by overseeing coastal fish-breeding habitats, re-

storing

endangered species

, collecting abandoned drift

nets, and trying to save turtles,

dolphins

, and whales that

swallow sunken plastic balloons or get caught in plastic

six-pack circles. The NMFS instituted the use of Turtle

Excluder Devices (TEDs) on shrimp nets to keep turtles

from being strangled.

NOAA also operates a rescue satellite, known as COS-

PAS-SARSAT (Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue).

Stranded fishermen and sailors, whose boats are equipped

with an Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon

(EPIRB), send a signal to the satellite that relays it to a

ground station which responds by sending a rescue vessel

within hours of the initial signal.

Because NOAA is unusual in its functions as a regula-

tory, research, and service agency, it is often an easy target

for budget-cutting. Underfunded during most of the 1980s

and always dependent on Congressional funding, NOAA is

currently struggling to streamline its duties in the face of

rapid climate change and increased

marine pollution

[Stephanie Ocko]

ESOURCES

ERIODICALS

Kerr, R. A. “NOAA Revived for the Green Decade.” Science 248 (June 8,

1990): 1177–79.

952

THER

National Implementation Plan for the Modernization and Restructuring of the

National Weather Service. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Com-

merce, 1992.

Toward a New National Weather Service. Second Report. Washington, DC:

National Research Council, 1992.

RGANIZATIONS

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 14th Street &

Constitution Avenue, NW, Room 6013, Washington, D.C. USA 20230

(202) 482-6090, Fax: (202) 482-3154,

National park

National parks are areas that have been legally set apart by

national governments because they have cultural or

natural

resources

which are deemed significant for the particular

country. National parks are typically large areas that are

mostly undisturbed by human occupation or exploitation.

They are characterized by spectacular scenery, abundant

wildlife

, unique geologic features, or interesting cultural or

historic sites.

National parks are managed to eliminate or minimize

human disturbances, while allowing human visitation for

recreational, educational, cultural, or inspirational purposes.

Activities consistent with typical national park management

include hiking, camping, picnicking, wildlife observation,

and photography. Fishing is usually allowed, but

hunting

is often prohibited. In the United States, national parks are

distinguished from national forests and other federal lands

because timber harvesting, cattle grazing, and mining are,

with a few exceptions, not permitted in national parks,

whereas they are permitted on most other federal lands.

The United States was the first country to establish

national parks. The Yosemite Grant of 1864 was the first

act that formally set aside land by the federal government

for “public use, resort and recreation.” Twenty square miles

(52 sq km) of land in the Yosemite valley and four square

miles (10 sq km) of giant sequoia were put under the care

of the State of California to be held “inalienable for all time.”

In 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the

establishment of

Yellowstone National Park

. Yellowstone

differed from Yosemite in that it was to be managed and

controlled by the federal government, not the state, and

therefore has received the honor of being considered the

first national park. Years later, Yosemite was turned over to

the federal government for federal management also. Since

1916, national parks in the United States have been adminis-

tered by the

National Park Service

an agency in the

U.S.

Department of the Interior

The concept of national parks has caught on all over

the world and continues to spread. Between the years 1972

and 1982 the number of national parks in the world increased

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Park Service

by 47% and the area encompassed in the parks increased 82%.

Today over 1000 national parks can be found worldwide in

more than 120 countries.

Many national parks in both developed and developing

countries are facing threats, however. The most commonly

reported threats are illegal removal of wildlife, destruction

of vegetation, and increased

erosion

. Often there is a lack

of personnel to deal with these threats. Management prob-

lems also arise because demand for use of park resources is

increasing. Many of these uses are conflicting, and virtually

all would have significant impacts on the resources that

characterize the parks.

Although parks consist of natural resources, they are

conceived, established, maintained, and often threatened by

humans. It is necessary for a society to derive benefits from

the parks to maintain public support for them. In light of

the need for public support, merely putting a fence around

the park and keeping people out is likely to fail in the

long term. Paradoxically then, some development and use

is necessary for

conservation

of the resources. Deciding on

the appropriate amounts and kind of uses compatible with

the resources is the key to successful park management.

During the summer of 1962 the first World Confer-

ence on National Parks was held in Seattle, Washington.

This historic conference and subsequent ones have given

people of many nations a forum to discuss threats facing

their parks and strategies for meeting the demand for con-

flicting uses. Only through such international dialogue and

continued diligence will these treasures we call national parks

be saved for

future generations

[Ted T. Cable]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Machlis, G. E., and D. L. Tichnell. The State of the World’s Parks. Boulder,

CO: Westview Press, 1985.

Runte, A. National Parks and American Experience. 2nd ed. Lincoln: Univer-

sity of Nebraska Press, 1987.

National Park Service

The

National Park

Service, an agency in the

U.S. Depart-

ment of the Interior

, was established by the National Park

Service Act of 1916 making it the first such agency in the

world. Its mission as stated in the Act is: “to conserve the

scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life

therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in

such a manner and by such means as will leave them unim-

paired for the enjoyment of future generations.”

The mission has not changed over the years but the

ambiguous wording of the act has sparked much debate over

953

what the primary use of a national park should be. Some

people feel the parks should be commercially developed in

order to best “provide for the enjoyment” of the resources,

whereas others think the highest priority should be preserv-

ing the resources in an “unimpaired” state for

future genera-

tions

. These conflicting views have existed ever since the

agency was established, and the debate will likely continue.

The dual mandate of providing enjoyment from the resources

and leaving them unchanged has been called the “preserva-

tion/use paradox.” Striking the balance between use and

preservation is still at the forefront of current national park

policy issues.

National parks existed in the United States prior to the

establishment of the National Park Service. The Yosemite

Grant of 1864 was the first act that formally set aside land

by the federal government for “public use, resort and recre-

ation.” Twenty square miles (52 km

) of land in the Yosemite

valley and 4 mi

(10 km

) of giant sequoia were put under

the care of the State of California by President Abraham

Lincoln. This land was to be held “inalienable for all time.”

In 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed into law the

establishment of

Yellowstone National Park

. Yellowstone

differed from Yosemite in that it was to be managed and

controlled by the federal government, not the state, and

therefore has received the honor of being considered the

first national park. Years later, Yosemite was also turned

over to the federal government for management.

Originally no money had been set aside for the protec-

tion and care of the national parks. The parks suffered from

illegal timber harvesting, grazing,

poaching

, and vandalism.

The U.S. Cavalry was sent in to protect the lands and did

so until 1916 when the National Park Service was formed.

Horace Albright was named Assistant for Parks in

1913 by the Secretary of Interior Franklin Lane. Albright,

in turn, recruited self-made millionaire and

nature

lover

Stephen Mather to help him establish an agency to manage

the parks. All the parks thus far had been created through

separate acts of Congress with no unified guidelines to man-

age and control them. Bills to form an agency to oversee

the parks had been introduced to Congress, but none had yet

passed. Through the intensive lobbying efforts of Albright,

Mather, and others, the National Park Service was formed

in 1916. Upon its creation the National Park Service took

over the management of 14 national parks and 21 national

monuments. Mather was the named the agency’s first Direc-

tor and Albright became his assistant. Later Albright would

become the second Director of the National Park Service.

Albright and Mather believed that if the park system

was to successfully defend itself from attacks by individuals

with utilitarian philosophies (i.e., those believing timber cut-

ting, grazing, and mining should be allowed on federal lands)

it would have to have a strong base of public support. They

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Park Service

Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona. (Photograph by Robert J. Huffman. Fieldmark Publications. Reproduced by permission.)

emphasized a tourism effort to “See America First” and

embarked on a policy of development and expansion to

include tennis courts,

golf courses

, and swimming pools.

As the

automobile

became popular they encouraged visita-

tion by car and tried to make the parks easily accessible.

Through their efforts park use soared.

Although public support was strong, lands still had to

be deemed worthless for agriculture or economic develop-

ment to be set aside as parks by Congress. Therefore, parks

typically were high altitude with steep rocky terrain. Also,

because they were still being justified and preserved as tourist

destinations, only those areas of spectacular scenery were

included within the park boundaries. This has resulted in

many management problems, as today park managers at-

tempt to look after park resources that are a part of ecosys-

tems which extend beyond the park boundaries.

The number of visitors to the parks increased so greatly

that by the 1920s the limited facilities could no longer keep

up with the growing demand. Overcrowding and

pollution

were becoming problems. Conservationists complained that

tourism was given priority over preservation and that the

parks were being degraded. Lodges and other amenities

954

continued to be added to the parks to handle the increased

visitation.

Until the establishment of

Everglades

National Park

in 1934, all of the national parks had been designated from

land that was already under federal government control. The

Everglades was the first park taken from annexed private

land. It was also the first park that was not preserved for its

spectacular scenery. Rather it was primarily established to

preserve its fragile

ecosystem

, especially its colorful and

conspicuous

wildlife

. Shortly thereafter, the Great Smoky

Mountain and Shenandoah National Parks were established.

These were developed from private lands that were pur-

chased using donations from private citizens, including John

D. Rockefeller.

With the growing environmental awareness of the

1970s increased public scrutiny was focused on the balance

between providing an enjoyable experience for visitors while

preserving the park resources. The National Park Service

looked for ways to accommodate the increasing numbers of

visitors while minimizing the impacts to the

environment

For example, to cut down on pollution and congestion,

shuttle buses now take visitors into the Yosemite, Grand

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National Parks and Conservation Association

Canyon, and Denali national parks. The National Park Ser-

vice continues to seek creative ways to simultaneously achieve

their dual missions of use and preservation.

The National Park Service administers 386 sites cov-

ering 80 million acres (32.4 million ha) in 49 states. Fifty of

these sites are national parks, sometimes referred to as the

“crown jewels” of the United States. The largest of the parks

is Wrangell-St. Elias covering 13.2 million acres (5.3 million

ha) in Alaska. In 1989 use at National Park Service facilities

was measured at 114 million visitor days. The most visited

national park is Great Smoky Mountain National Park.

In addition to the national parks, the National Park

Service also administers 79 National Monuments, 69 Na-

tional Historic Sites, and 29 National Historic Parks. They

manage sites in 22 different categories including wild and

scenic rivers, seashores, lakeshores, scenic trails, parkways,

preserves, and even the White House. Each of the sites are

placed into one of these categories based on such attributes

as size, level of development, and significance. They are

managed under policies appropriate for that type of site. For

example, a national preserve is typically set aside to protect

a particular resource.

Hunting

, fishing, mining, or extraction

of fuels can be allowed on the preserve so long as it does

not threaten the specific resource being preserved.

Each year millions of people from around the world

come to the National Parks to recreate, to learn, and to be

inspired in these wondrous places. Truly, the National Park

Service is the caretaker of America’s “crown jewels.”

[Ted T. Cable]

ESOURCES

OOKS

Albright, Horace M., and Marian Albright Schenck. Creating the National

Park Service: The Missing Years. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,

1999.

Runte, A. National Parks and American Experience. 2nd ed. Lincoln: Univer-

sity of Nebraska Press, 1987.

THER

National Parks Service. [June 2002]. <http://www.cr.nps.gov>.

National Parks and Conservation

Association

The National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA) was

founded in 1919 for the defense, promotion, and improve-

ment of the United States’

national park

system and the

education of the general public regarding national parks.

Throughout its history, the NPCA has worked toward a

three-fold goal: to save the parks from exploitation,

pollu-

tion

, and degradation of their

natural resources

; to facili-

955

tate easy access to the national parks for all Americans; and

to preserve the great variety of

wildlife

found within the

boundaries of the parks.

With a membership of 280,000—including both indi-

viduals and organizations—the NPCA boasts considerable

political influence and is particularly effective in organizing

ground swell support. Members are kept informed of politi-

cal, environmental, and other issues through National Parks,

the official NPCA publication. The magazine also contains

articles of interest on state parks, international public lands,

and matters of general environmental importance.

For more than 70 years, the NPCA has helped increase

the holdings of the National Park System by lobbying for the

expansion of existing grounds and for the establishment of

new parks. Through the National Park Trust Fund, the

NPCA has acquired and donated land to the National Park

System. It has labored to protect national parks from overde-

velopment and encroaching

urban sprawl

and has partici-

pated in studies to analyze and minimize the impact of visitor

traffic.

Other support programs sponsored by the NPCA in-

clude fund raisers such as the March for Parks program,

independent studies of resource management in national

parks, and efforts to protect and revitalize populations of

wild animals within the parks. Working in conjunction with

other conservation groups, the NPCA has dealt with such

wide ranging environmental issues as

air pollution

acid

rain

water pollution

endangered species

, and damage

to coastal areas.

Through its bimonthly magazine, National Parks, the

NPCA helps coordinate grassroots activities such as the Park

Watchers Program, a network of concerned local parties

who keep track of potential threats to the Park System, and

the Contact System which alerts members to make their

views known to public officials on issues concerning the

environment

. Services to its members include special tours

of national parks, general information about environmental

issues and their impact on the Park System, and periodic

legislative updates and action alerts.

A second bimonthly publication, Exchanges, is directed

to those who participate in NPCA volunteer programs.

These volunteers serve in a variety of capacities, including

public relations, trip coordination, event planning, and fund-

raising.

The NPCA also has significant political influence,

supporting such proposals as the American Heritage Trust

Act, which would “protect our historic and natural heritage”

with funding provided by royalties from offshore

oil drilling

Internships are offered by the NPCA to college students

and graduates who want to work in the legislative process.

[Linda M. Ross]

Environmental Encyclopedia 3

National pollutant discharge elimination system

ESOURCES

RGANIZATIONS

National Parks and Conservation Association, 1300 19th Street, NW, Suite

300, Washington, D.C. USA 20036 Fax: (202) 659-0650, Toll Free: (800)

628-7275, Email: npca@npca.org, <http://www.eparks.org>

National pollutant discharge

elimination system

The National Pollutant

Discharge

Elimination System

(NPDES) seeks to end the discharge of all types of industrial,

municipal, and agricultural waste from point sources into

American waters. These point sources include industrial

facilities and publicly owned treatment works (POTWs), as

well as

runoff

from urban areas.

The NPDES was established by the Federal

Water

Pollution

Control Act Amendments of 1972 and was ex-

panded under the

Water Quality

Act of 1987. Most

NPDES programs are administered by the states, under the

direction of the Office of

Wastewater

Management of the

U. S.

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA).

Nationwide more than 400,000 facilities are required

to obtain NPDES permits. NPDES permits usually license

a facility to discharge a given amount of a pollutant under

specific conditions, although permits also are granted for

other types of waste disposal. Permits are required only for

facilities that discharge directly into bodies of water. The

NPDES National Pretreatment Program regulates indirect

discharges, such as discharges to POTWs. Although the

NPDES encompasses all of the nation’s surface waters, in-

cluding

wetlands

and seasonal streams, discharges into

ground water that is not connected to surface water are not

regulated unless required by the state. Individual permits are

issued to a single facility for a maximum of five years. General

permits license multiple facilities that have similar types of

discharge within a specific geographical area. Most agricul-

tural facilities, with the exception of concentrated-animal-

feeding facilities, are exempt from NPDES regulations.

NPDES permits require that discharges be treated

using the best technology available. If these technology-

based standards do not protect the water, water-quality-

based standards must be met instead. Permits may contain

both technology-based limits, such as a nationwide limit on

total suspended solids in a discharge, and water-quality-

based limits, such as ammonia limitations based on aquatic

toxicity. Permits issued by the EPA must meet state water-

quality standards and local discharge limits. Permits include

monitoring and reporting requirements and draft permits

are open for public comment.

The NPDES initially focused on controlling the dis-

charge of conventional pollutants such as suspended solids,

oil and grease, and disease-causing organisms. By 1989 facili-

956

ties were required to meet “Best

Conventional Pollutant

Control Technology” (BCT) limits, as well as “Best Avail-

able Technology Economically Achievable” (BAT) limits

for the discharge of toxic and non-conventional pollutants.

Toxic and priority pollutants include 126 metals, organic

substances, and pollutant classes. Non-conventional pollut-

ants include

nitrogen

phosphorus

chlorine

, and ammo-

nia, as well as parameters such as whole

effluent

toxicity.

BAT standards require facilities to utilize the best control

and treatment methods that are achievable. Unlike earlier

NPDES standards, the benefits do not have to be weighed

against the costs of control and treatment.

NPDES permits typically require POTWs to provide

physical separation and settling of wastes, biological treat-

ment, and disinfection. The NPDES also regulates

sludge

from POTWs, as well as municipal separate

storm sewer

systems and combined sewer overflow systems. The latter

discharge untreated effluent during storms. Polluted storm

water discharges include runoff from land, streets, parking

lots, and building roofs. Industrial storm-water discharges

must meet both water-quality-based standards and the

storm-water equivalents of BCT and BAT standards. By

March 2003 NPDES storm water permits will be required

for construction sites of at least one acre, as well as some

smaller sites.

The NPDES has significantly reduced the discharge of

pollutants into American waterways and has brought about

major improvements in the quality of the nation’s

water

resources

. In 1972 only one-third of these waters were

safe for swimming and fishing compared with two-thirds in

2001. Wetlands loss has been reduced from 460,000 acres

annually to 70–90,000 acres per year.

Soil erosion

from

agricultural runoff has been reduced by one billion tons

annually. Nitrogen and phosphorous levels in waterways have

decreased. Modern wastewater treatment facilities now serve

173 million people, compared to only 85 million in 1972. As

of 2001, more than 50 categories of industry and hundreds of

thousands of businesses, as well as more than 16,000 munici-

pal

sewage treatment

systems, were in compliance with

the NPDES standards.

However the remaining sources of water

pollution

are

more difficult to regulate. The EPA estimates that over

20,000 river sections, lakes, and estuaries, including about

300,000 miles of shoreline, are polluted. The vast majority

of the American population lives within 10 miles of these

waters. The millions of smaller sources of pollution are varied

and less amenable to available technological solutions. These

include hundreds of thousands of storm-water sources and

about 450,000 animal-feeding operations. Therefore the

NPDES is focusing more on the pollution problems of indi-

vidual watersheds, developing total maximum daily loads,