Foster L.V. A Brief History of Mexico
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO
308
Fuentes, Carlos. A New Time for Mexico. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1997.
Ganster, Paul, and David E. Lorey. The U.S.-Mexican Border into the
Twenty-first Century. 2d ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield,
2007.
Haber, Stephen. Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of
Mexico, 1890–1940. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995.
Lorey, David. The U.S.-Mexican Border in the Twentieth Century.
Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999.
Lowenthal, Abraham F. Partners in Conflict: The United States and Latin
America in the 1990s. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1990.
Lustig, Nora. Mexico: The Remaking of an Economy. 2d ed. Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998.
McAnany, Emile G., and Kenton T. Wilkinson, eds. Mass Media and Free
Trade: NAFTA and the Cultural Industries. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1997.
Menchaca, Martha. The Mexican Outsiders: A Community of
Marginalization and Discrimination in California. Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1995.
Monaghan, John. The Covenants with Earth and Rain: Exchange, Sacrifice,
and Revelation in Mixtec Society. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1999.
Morris, Stephen D. Political Reformism in Mexico: An Overview of
Contemporary Mexican Politics. Boulder, Colo.: Lynn Reiner, 1995.
Oppenheimer, Andrés. Bordering on Chaos: Mexico’s Roller-Coaster
Journey towards Prosperity. Boston: Back Bay Books, 1998.
Rotella, Sebastian. Twilight on the Line: Underworlds and Politics at the
U.S.-Mexican Border. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998.
Russell, Philip L. Mexico under Salinas. Austin, Tex.: Mexico Resource
Center, 1994.
Sandstrom, Alan. Corn Is Our Blood: Culture and Ethnic Identity in a
Contemporary Aztec Indian Village. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1991.
Stoddard, Ellwyn R. Maquila Assembly Plants in Northern Mexico. El
Paso: Texas Western Press, 1987.
Sullivan, Paul. Unfinished Conversations: Mayas and Foreigners Between
Two Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Weintraub, Sidney. Transforming the Mexican Economy: The Salinas
Sexenio. Washington D.C.: National Planning Association, 1990.
309
APPENDIX 4
———. A Marriage of Convenience: Relations between Mexico and the
United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Womack, John, ed. Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader. New York:
New Press, 1999.
A More Democratic Mexico
Bacon, Christopher M., ed. Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Fair Trade,
Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystems in Mexico and Central America.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
Butler, Edgar W., James B. Pick, and W. James Hettrick. Mexico and
Mexico City in the World Economy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
2001.
Egan, Linda. Carlos Monsivaís: Culture and Chronicle in Contemporary
Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2001.
Levy, David, and Kathleen Bruhn. Mexico: The Struggle for Democratic
Development. 2d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Levy, Santiago. Progress against Poverty: Sustaining Mexico’s Progresa-
Oportunidades Program. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution
Press, 2006.
Martínez, Oscar J. Troublesome Border. Rev. ed. Tucson: University of
Arizona Press, 2006.
Martinez, Ruben. Crossing Over: A Mexican Family on the Migrant Trail.
New York: Henry Holt, 2001.
Montemayor, Carlos, and Donald Frischmann. Words of the True
Peoples/Palabras de los seres verdaderos. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 2005.
Preston, Julia, and Samuel Dillon. Opening Mexico: The Making of a
Democracy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
Randall, Laura, ed. Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social, and
Economic Prospects. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2005.
Shadlen, Kenneth C. Democratization without Representation: The
Politics of Small Industry in Mexico. University Park, Pa.: Penn State
University Press, 2004.
311
A
Academia de San Juan de
Letrán 131
acculturation
Catholicism and 68,
95–99
extent of 78–79
forced 64–65
resistance to 72
activism, political
under Calderón 257–258
by civic organizations
270–271
under Fox 252–253
against NAFTA 247
student 204–206, 245,
281, 282
at Tlatelolco 281, 282
Adelitas 168, 261
administration
of Alemán 197–198, 199,
200, 280
of Ávila Camacho 195–
199, 201, 280
by caciques 76–77, 87,
91, 94, 108, 134
of Calderón 258–265,
268, 282–283
of Calles 180–182
of Cárdenas 182–191,
280
of Carranza 172–174
of Díaz 143–160, 279–
280
of Díaz Ordaz 204–206,
281
of Echeverría 207–211,
281
of Fox 241–254, 282
of Guadalupe Victoria
119–120
of Huerta 167–169
of Iturbide 118–119
of Juárez 132–141, 279
of López Mateos 202–204,
281
of López Portillo 211–
214, 281
of Madero 163–164,
279–280
of de la Madrid 214–217,
281
of national resources 197
of New Spain 82–88
of Obregón 177–180
of Ruiz Cortines 199, 202
of Salinas de Gortari 223–
232, 236–237, 281
of Santa Anna 279
of Zedillo 232–240, 254,
282
Admiradoras de Juárez 150
ads, political 255–258, 261
agriculture
under Alemán 198
Bourbon reforms and
105–106
under Cárdenas 184–185
under Charles III 103–
104
under Cortés 63
creation myths and 18–
19
under Díaz 153–156
exports 262t
Gulf Coast region 25
under López Portillo 213
maize and 209
Mayan ball games and 17
NAFTA and 247–250
of New Spain 89–90
policy under the
conservatives 199–200
pre-Columbian 6–7,
10–11
production increases in
197t
revenues from 104t, 107
during the revolution of
1910 175, 176t
under Salinas 226
in Lake Texcoco 83
Aguascalientes, Convention
of 170
Aguascalientes, state of 194m
Aguilar, Carlos (Zapatista) 231
Aguilar, Jerónimo (Spanish
explorer) 5, 52
Aguilar, Josefina (folk artist)
219
Alamo, the 123–125
alcoholism, pulque and 64
Aldama, Juan de (rebel leader)
110–112
Alemán, Miguel (president of
Mexico)
administration of 197–
198
chronology of 280
corruption under 200–
202
labor and 199
Allende, Ignacio (rebel leader)
110–112
Altamirano, Ignacio (Indian
novelist) 140
Alvarado, Pedro de
(conquistador) 57, 62m, 277
americanos, Creole 107
AMLO. See López Obrador,
Andrés Manuel (presidential
candidate)
Ampudia, Pedro de (Mexican
general) 127
anthropology, mexicanidad and
217–218
anticlericalism
Constitution of 1917 and
172
Farías and 122
Juárez and 136–137
the Liberal Party and
133–135
rebellion and 181–182
the Reform War and
135–136
antiquarians, foreign 153
apartments, Teotihuacáno 31
arch, Mayan corbel 32
architecture
Aztec 38–40, 59
churrigueresque 105
Mayan 32, 36
mendicant Catholic 67–68
Index
Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations. Page numbers followed by m indicate maps. Page numbers
followed by c indicate chronologies. Page numbers followed by t indicate tables.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO
312
of Mexico City 81–82
of Monte Albán 36–37
monumental Olmec 26
of New Spain 85, 86,
95–96
under PAN 266
Aridjis, Homero (Maya poet)
11
army. See also war
Aztec 46
coups by 143–144
under Fox 245
under Huerta 168
under Juárez 140
reduction of 195
Spanish 47–48, 52, 60
war on drugs and 260,
269, 283
Zedillo and 238–239
Arrieta, Agustín (artist) 132
art
Aztec 40, 41–42
under Cárdenas 188–190
Catholicism and 96–97
under the conservatives
217–220
under Díaz 150–152
education and 178–179
Mayan 32
Mixtec 42–43, 251
Monte Albáno 37
in the neocolonial period
122
Olmec 26–28
under PAN 266–267
Postclassic 38
artisans
mexicanidad and 219
in New Spain 95–96
astrology, pre-Columbian
13–15
astronomy, pre-Columbian
11–15
atole 10
audiencias 83, 87–88
Austin, Stephen (Texan leader)
124
Ávila, Alonso de (encomendero)
75
Ávila Camacho, Manuel
(president of Mexico)
chronology of 280
education and 201
election of 195
industrialization under
196–198
social security and 199
World War II and 195–
196
Ayala, Plan de 165
Ayutla, Constitutional
Convention of 132
Ayutla, Revolution of 132
Aztec civilization
alcoholism and 64
assimilation of 79
chronology of 24c,
277–278
creation myths of 15–19
first contact with 4
human sacrifice and 20,
28–29, 38
maize and 10–11
under Moctezuma 45–47
in the Postclassic period
38–43
recording of 70
Teotihuacán and 29
Azuela, Mariano (writer) 190
B
ball games
first 16–17
Moctezuma and 47
Postclassic 38
trade and 26
Barragán, Luis (architect) 266
barter. See trade
Bassoco, Count (Creole noble)
106
Bering Strait, travel across 6
Bewitched, The. See Charles II
(king of Spain)
bicentennial, Mexican 269
biotech crops 249
birth control, Echeverría and
209–211. See also population
bloodletting, pre-Columbian
21
Bonaparte, Napoléon. See
Napoléon I
Borda, José de la (silver baron)
105
border, U.S. See undocumented
workers
Bourbon dynasty 102–109,
278
bracero program 196, 211, 280
Bravi, the 144
“Bread and the Club” 143
bribery. See mordidas
Broad Progressive Front (FAP)
261–262
Brozo the Creepy Clown
(journalist) 244
Bucareli, Antonio María de
(Bourbon viceroy) 104
Buena Vista, battle of 127
buildings
Aztec 38–40, 59
churrigueresque 105
Mayan 32, 36
mendicant Catholic
67–68
of Mexico City 81–82
of Monte Albán 36–37
of New Spain 85, 86,
95–96
Olmec 26
Bush, George W. (U.S.
president) 251
Bustos, Hermeneguildo (artist)
132
Butcher, the 165
C
caballeros 92
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez
(conquistador) 62m, 278
Cabrera, Miguel (colonial
painter) 97
Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez
(conquistador) 62m, 278
cacao, pre-Columbian trade
in 9
caciques
in the neocolonial period
129
in New Spain 76–77, 87,
91, 94
oppression under 108
Reform Laws and 134
cadets, martyrdom of 128, 196
Calderón, Fernando
(playwright) 131
Calderón de la Barca, Fanny
(diarist) 123, 150
Calderón Hinojosa, Felipe
(president of Mexico) 254–
265, 268, 282–283
calendars, pre-Columbian
11–15
Calleja, Félix (Mexican
general) 112, 114
Calles, Plutarco Elías (president
of Mexico) 167, 179–184,
280
Canek, Jacinto (rebel leader)
108
Can Ek dynasty 102, 108, 278
cannibalism, Aztec 20
Cantinflas (comedian) 220
Capelo (ceramicist) 219
capitalism, under de la Madrid
216
capitals, state 194m
Cárdenas, Cuauhtémoc
(presidential candidate)
elected mayor of Mexico
City 234
v. Fox 243
v. Salinas 224
v. Zedillo 232–233
Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of
Mexico) 177, 182–191, 280
Carlota (empress of Mexico)
137–138
313
INDEX
Carnaval de Ideolgías (Orozco)
111
Carranza, Venustiano
(president of Mexico) 167,
169–174, 280
Casa del Obrero Mundial 173
cash crops 153–154, 155
castas, unrest among 108–109
Caste Wars 128, 130, 279
Catholicism
assimilation into 95–99
Bourbon reforms and 109
under Cárdenas 187
Charles V and 66
Constitution of 1917 and
172
Council of Trent and 75
under Díaz 145
Farías and 122
independence and 115
Juárez and 136–137
the Liberal Party and
133–135
mendicant friars and
67–71
Mesoamerican 70–75
modernization and 227
in New Spain 85–87
rebellion and 110–114,
181–182
the Reform War and
135–136
caudillos
Díaz as 143–144
fading of 180
under Juárez 139, 140
local politics and 120
opposition to Madero
by 164
Celaya, battle of 170
celestial events, pre-Columbian
11–15
centennial celebration 159–160
central highlands
Aztecs in 37–43
chronology of 24c
Spanish in 87
Teotihuacán and 28–32
chapels, New World 67–68
Chapultepec Castle
battle of 128
Maximilian in 138
as museum 183
Charles II (king of Spain) 102,
278
Charles III (king of Spain)
103–104
Charles IV (king of Spain) 109
Charles V (Holy Roman
Emperor [Charles I (king of
Spain)])
Catholicism of 66
Cortés and 61–62
death of 75
encomienda and 65
Charlot, Jean (artist) 189
Chávez, Carlos (musician)
189–190
Chiapas 24c
Chichén Itzá
Caste Wars and 130
chronology of 24c, 277
Edward Thompson and
153
excavation of 188
Great Ball Court at 17
Chihuahua, state of 162–163
chinampa 83. See also
agriculture
Cholula, massacre at 55
christening, calendar and 14
chronology, long count and 15
Chupícuaro 24c
church, the
assimilation into 95–99
Bourbon reforms and 109
under Cárdenas 187
Charles V and 66
Constitution of 1917 and
172
Council of Trent and 75
under Díaz 145
Farías and 122
independence and 115
Juárez and 136–137
the Liberal Party and
133–135
mendicant friars and
67–71
Mesoamerican 70–75
modernization and 227
in New Spain 85–87
rebellion and 110–114,
181–182
the Reform War and
135–136
Churubusco, battle of 127
cientifícos, Porfirio Díaz and
150, 151, 156–157
Cinco de Mayo 136, 279
cities, pre-Columbian 1–2, 24c,
277. See also individual cities
Citlaltépetl (Velasco) 146
Civic Alliance 240
civilizations, pre-Columbian
anthropology and 217–
218
Aztec 45–47
calendars and 11–15
chronology of 277
cities of 1–2
creation myths of 15–19
distribution of 8
Olmec 24–28
origins of 2–6
resurgence of 228
classes, social. See also race
under Bourbon reforms
105–109
Mexican Revolution of
1910 165
in New Spain 92–94
Classic period
chronology of 24c, 277
civilizations of 28–37
climate
Maya and 36
Mexico City and 83
population and 230
Clouthier, Manuel (presidential
candidate) 224
CNC. See National Peasants
Confederation (CNC),
founding of
Cobá 24c
cochineal
Mixtec and 91, 129
production increases in
103
revenues from 89
Codex Nuttall 76
Codex of Yanhuitlán 76–77
Colosio, Luis Donaldo
(presidential candidate) 232,
236, 282
Columbus, Christopher
(explorer)
the conquistadores and
47–48
first impression of Native
Americans 4
columns, Monte Albáno 36–37
computations, pre-Columbian
11–15
Confederación de Trabajadores
de México (CTM)
under Ávila Camacho
198
founding of 185
conquistadores
chronology of 277–278
under Cortés 48–49,
50–52, 61–63
motivations of 47–48
Constitutional Convention of
Ayutla 132
Constitutionalists,
revolutionary 167, 169
Constitution of 1917
establishment of 171–172,
280
PEMEX and 261
U.S. oil interests and
179–180
construction
Aztec 38–40, 59
Mayan 32, 36
mendicant Catholic
67–68
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO
314
under Díaz 146–149
of Mexico City 81–82
of Monte Albán 36–37
monumental Olmec 26
Convention of Aguascalientes
170
conversion, religious 67–72
corbel arch, Mayan 32
Córdoba, Hernández de
(conquistador) 49–50
Córdoba, Plan of 115
corn. See also agriculture
Mexican Revolution of
1910 and 175, 176t
NAFTA and 247–248, 249
pre-Columbian civilizations
and 10–11, 18–19
production increases in
197t
Salinas and 226
shortage of 209
Coronado, Fransisco de
(conquistador) 62m, 278
Coronel, Pedro (artist) 219
Correa, Juan (colonial painter)
97
corregidores 84, 90, 103
corruption
under Alemán 200, 201,
202
assassinations and
236–237
under Calderón 259
drug–related 267–269
elections and 240, 243
Fox and 246, 254
de la Madrid and 216–217
trade and 264–265
under Zedillo 237–238
Cortés, Hernán (conquistador)
administration of 61–63
background of 48–49, 51
chronology of 277
conquest of Tenochtitlán
54–58
expedition of 50–52
hipball and 16
legacy of 66
Moctezuma and 52–54
New Spain and 62m
retirement of 65
Cortés, Martín (Marqués del
Valle) 75
“cosmic race” 178
Council of Trent 75
coup, Porfiriato 143–144
Covarrubias, Miguel (artist)
189
coyotes 93
craftsmen. See artisans
creation myths 15–19
Creel, Enrique (hacendado)
162
Creoles
architecture of 105
ascension of 130–131
Bourbon reforms and
106–109
class and 92
education of 95
independence and 115
population of 93t
crime
drug-related 238–239,
245, 259–260, 267–269
election-related 224–225,
257
criollos. See Creoles
La Crisis 234–235
Cristero Rebellion 181–182,
280
CROM. See Regional
Confederation of Mexican
Workers (CROM)
Cruz, Sor Juana Inés de la
(poet) 97, 98
CTM. See Confederación de
Trabajadores de México
(CTM)
Cuarón, Alfonso (filmmaker)
266
Cuauhtémoc (Aztec emperor)
58, 131
Cuauhtlahtoatzin, Juan Diego
(Aztec boy) 227
Cuernavaca, capital of Morelos
194m
Cuevas, José Luis (artist) 219
Cuicuilco 24c
Cuidad Nezahualcóyotl 210
Cuilapán, Church of 67
Cuitlahuac (successor to
Moctezuma) 58
culture
Aztec 40, 41–42
under Cárdenas 188–190
Catholicism and 96–97
under the conservatives
217–220
under Díaz 150–152
education and 178–179
Maya 32
Mixtec 42–43, 251
Monte Albáno 37
in the neocolonial period
122
Olmec 26–28
under PAN 266–267
Postclassic 38
cycles, mythic 13–15
D
damas 92
The Death of Artemio Cruz
(Fuentes) 217
debt, foreign
under Juárez 136, 139, 279
under López Portillo
213–214, 281
under de la Madrid
214–215
during the revolution of
1910 176
under Salinas 225
debt peonage
hacienda system and 90,
140
outlawed 138, 172
Decena Trágica 164
deforestation, population and
230
de la Huerta, Adolfo. See
Huerta, Adolfo de la
de la Madrid, Miguel. See
Madrid, Miguel de la
del Toro, Guillermo. See Toro,
Guillermo del
democracy
citizenship and 270–271
PRI domination of 191,
216–217, 241–244, 255
referendums and
261–262
reforms and 233–234,
256–258
rigged elections and
224–225
Tlatelolco massacre and
206–207
2006 congressional
elections and 259t
women’s rights and 201,
281
Zedillo and 240
Democratic Revolutionary Party
(PRD) 242–243, 244t
demonstrations
against Calderón
257–258
under Fox 252–253
against NAFTA 247
student 204–206, 245,
281, 282
Zapatista 245–246
depopulation
by disease 58, 74
by genocide 48–49
depression, Porfiriato 158
Díaz, Porfirio (president of
Mexico)
chronology of 279–280
on Cinco de Mayo 136
dictatorship of 143–160
loss of Oaxaca by 137
Mexican Revolution of
1910 and 162–164
opposition to Juárez 140,
141
315
INDEX
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal
(conquistador) 55, 57
Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo (president
of Mexico) 204–206, 281
dinosaurs, PRI 225, 236
dirty war
chronology of 281, 282
Díaz Ordaz and 206–207
Fox and 245
Distrito Federal 194m
Dr. Atl (artist) 160
Doheny, Edward (oil baron)
152
Drake, Sir Francis (privateer)
78
Dresden Codex 12
drugs
Calderón and 259–260
corruption and 238–239
the military and 245, 283
violence and 267–268, 269
Dzibilchaltun 24c
E
“Each One Teach One” 201
earthquake of 1985 215, 281
Echeverría, Luis (president of
Mexico) 207–211, 281
Economic Independence Day
186
economics
Aztec 40
Catholicism and 95–96
under Díaz 146–149,
152–154
under Echeverría 208
under Fox 246–250
future of 269–270
under Juárez 140–141
under López Mateos 204
under López Portillo
211–212, 213–214
under de la Madrid 214–
215, 216
in Mexico City 82
Mixtec 42–43
Monte Albáno 37
in the neocolonial period
129–131
in New Spain 88–92
Olmec 26–28
under PAN 262–266
petroleum and 180–181,
186–187
Postclassic 38
post-independence
118–119
pre-Columbian 9, 16
during the revolution of
1910 175–176
under Salinas 225–227,
229–231
Spanish 78
United States and 124
women and 53
World War II and 196–
198
under Zedillo 234–236,
239
ecosystem, the
Maya and 36
Mexico City and 83
population and 230
education
under Cárdenas 187, 190
Catholicism and 95
under the conservatives
200–202, 217–218
under López Mateos 204
mendicant friars and 70
under PAN 265–266
under Díaz 149–150
under PRI 239t, 240
Vasconcelos and 178–179
Edzná 24c
8 Deer “Tiger Claw” (Mixtec
cacique) 76–77
ejido lands
under Cárdenas 184–185
under Carranza 173
under the conservatives
199–200, 209
Constitution of 1917 and
172
Maximilian and 138
Reform Laws and 134,
135
under Salinas 226
El bachiller (Nervo) 150
El Crack (writer’s group) 266
elections
citizenship and 270–271
PRI domination of 191,
216–217, 241–244, 255
referendum 261–262
reforms of 233–234,
256–258
rigged 224–225
Tlatelolco massacre and
206–207
2006 congressional 259t
women’s rights and 201,
281
Zedillo and 240
El Tajín 24c, 277
emigration
chronology of 282
remittances and 250–251
undocumented 211
U.S. response to 226–227,
270
encomienda
hacienda system and 89
labor and 73, 75
system of 64–65
environment, the
Maya and 36
Mexico City and 83
population and 230
Equal Rights Amendment 281
erosion, in the Sierra Mixteca
203
escape, shot while trying to
145
Escudero y Espronada, José
(artist) 133
Esquivel, Laura (writer) 217
Estrada, José María (artist) 132
ethnographers, mendicant friars
as 70
Eva of Naharon (fossilized
woman) 6
exchange. See trade
extermination, native American
48–49. See also depopulation
EZLN. See Zapatista Army of
National Liberation (EZLN)
F
Fannin, Colonel James (Texan
leader) 125
FAP. See Broad Progressive
Front (FAP)
Farías, Gómez (vice president
of Mexico) 122
Father of the Indians. See
Velasco, Luis de (Spanish
viceroy)
Federal Preventive Police (PFP)
252–253
Ferdinand VII (king of Spain)
109
Fernández, Emilio (filmmaker)
220
Fernández, Félix (rebel leader)
114, 115, 119–120
Fernández de Cevallos, Diego
(presidential candidate) 233
fertility rate
the environment and 230
growth under the
conservatives 209–211,
220–221
increase under Díaz 149,
157
policy and 281
urbanization and 203t,
204
festivals, pre-Columbian 11–15
Fierro, Rodolfo (bandit) 165
fifth, royal 92
film industry, Mexican 204,
220, 266–267
flowery wars, Aztec 40
folk art, mexicanidad and 219
foreign trade 124, 152–154,
196–198. See also trade
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO
316
Fox Quesada, Vicente
(president of Mexico) 241–
254, 262–263, 282
France, war with 136–139
Franciscans. See friars,
mendicant
friars, mendicant
arrival of 66–67
chronology of 277–278
conversions by 67–68,
69
music and 97–99
in New Spain 85–87
Fuentes, Carlos (writer) 217,
250
Fugo, Ley 145
G
Gadsden Purchase 123, 126m,
279
Galván, Ignacio Rodríguez
(poet) 131
games, ball
first 16–17
Moctezuma and 47
Postclassic 38
trade and 26
García Icazbalceta, Joaquín
(writer) 150–151
GATT. See General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Gazapo (Sainz) 217
General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) 216, 281
genocide, native American 48–
49. See also depopulation
geography
Gulf Coast region 25
Mesoamerican 7–9
Monte Albáno 37
of New Spain 87–88
Gilded Age, Porfiriato 149–
152
Goitia, Francisco (artist) 189
gold. See also mining
conquistadores and 54,
56–57, 58
under Díaz 147
the dollar and 208
expatriation of 118
under Juárez 140
mining of 87, 91–92, 103
in the neocolonial period
129
revenues from 104t
Goliad, battle of 125
González Iñáritu, Alejandro
(filmmaker) 266
Good Neighbor Policy,
Roosevelt’s 196
Gore, Al (U.S. vice president)
229
government
under Alemán 197–198,
199, 200, 280
under Ávila Camacho
195–199, 201, 280
by caciques 76–77, 87,
91, 94, 108, 134
under Calderón 258–265,
268, 282–283
under Calles 180–182
under Cárdenas 182–191,
280
under Carranza 172–174
under Díaz 143–160,
279–280
under Díaz Ordaz 204–
206, 281
under Echeverría 207–
211, 281
under Fox 241–254, 282
under Guadalupe Victoria
119–120
under Huerta 167–169
under Iturbide 118–119
under Juárez 132–141,
279
de la Madrid 214–217,
281
under López Mateos 202–
204, 281
under López Portillo
211–214, 281
under Madero 163–164,
279–280
national resources and
197
of New Spain 82–88
under Obregón 177–180
under Ruiz Cortines 199,
202
under Salinas de Gortari
223–232, 236–237, 281
under Santa Anna 279
under Zedillo 232–240,
254, 282
granaderos 205–206
Great Goddess of Teotihuacán
25, 31
gridlock, political, under Fox
246–247
Grijalva, Juan de (explorer)
49–50
Grito de Dolores 110, 278
Guadalupe, Virgin of
Basilica of 96
Catholicism and 227
independence and 112,
113
syncretism and 68, 71
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of
126m, 128, 279
Guanajuato, state of 194m
guayule tree 16
guerra sucia
chronology of 281, 282
Díaz Ordaz and 206–207
Fox and 245
Guerrero, Gonzalo (Spanish
explorer) 5
Guerrero, Vicente (rebel leader)
114, 115
Guerrero Olmec 24c
Guggenheim, Daniel
(industrialist) 152
Gulf Coast region
chronology of 24c
Olmec in 25
Spanish and 87
Gunrunner, Project 283
Guzmán, Don Gabriel de
(Mixtec cacique) 76–77,
91, 94
Guzmán, Martín Luis (writer)
190
H
haciendas
agriculture of 89–90
under Juárez 139–140
revenues from 107
Spanish presence and 85
Hapsburgs, Spanish 101–102,
278. See also Charles II (king
of Spain); Charles V (Holy
Roman emperor [Charles I
(king of Spain)]); Philip II
(king of Spain)
Harding, Warren G. (U.S.
president) 179
henequén
economics of 140
land and 154–155
during the revolution of
1910 175, 176t
Hewlett Packard 263
Hidalgo, state of 194m
Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel
(rebel leader) 110–112,
113m, 278
hipball, Aztec 16–17
hombrecillos 4
Huerta, Adolfo de la (rebel
leader) 179–180
Huerta, Victoriano (president of
Mexico) 164, 165–169, 280
Huitzilopochtli (Aztec god)
17, 20
human rights
Calderón and 260
Fox and 245, 252–253
human sacrifice
in the Classic period
28–29
conquistadores and 56–57
creation myths and 18–22
317
INDEX
the Crucifixion and 68
Postclassic 38
hunger
under Díaz 155–156
during the revolution of
1910 175
hunters, pre-Columbian 6
I
Iguala, Plan of 115
IMF. See International Monetary
Fund (IMF)
immigration, European 157
impunity, criminal 268–269
IMSS. See Instituto Mexicano
de Seguro Social (IMSS)
INAH. See National Institute
of Archaeology and History
(INAH)
income inequality 265. See
also labor
independence
achievement of 114–115
bicentennial of 269
chronology of 278
Hidalgo and 110–112
Morelos and 113–114
race and 107–110
Indians. See also race
under Cárdenas 184
Catholicism and 95
under Díaz 154–156
Fox and 245–246
independence and 108
under Juárez 140
modern Zapatista 231–
232
naming of 2
Reform Laws and 134,
135
resurgent traditions of
228
Social Darwinism and
156–157
treatment of 94
industrialization. See also
modernization
failure of 263–264
World War II and 196–198
inflation, wages and 236t
Inquisition, the
Bourbon reforms and 107,
109
chronology of 278
Hapsburgs and 102
syncretism and 68
and Trent, Council of 75
Institutional Revolutionary
Party (PRI)
alliance with PAN 259, 261
free elections and 241–
244, 255
lingering influence of 270
repression under 206–207
roots of 182, 191, 280
Instituto Mexicano de Seguro
Social (IMSS)
formation of 199
under López Mateos 203
under Salinas 231
intendentes 103
International Monetary Fund
(IMF), de la Madrid and
214
investments, foreign 262–263
Isabel (daughter of
Moctezuma) 53, 63
Israel, Lost Tribe of 5
Iturbide, Agustín de (emperor
of Mexico) 115, 118–119,
278
Iturbide, Graciela
(photographer) 219
Itza, the 102
Ixtolinque, Pedro Patiño
(sculptor) 131
Izapa 24c
J
Jefe Máximo 182. See also
Calles, Plutarco Elías
(president of Mexico)
jewelry, Mixtec 43. See also art
Jiménez, Manuel (folk artist)
219
Juárez, Benito (president of
Mexico) 132–141, 279
K
Kahlo, Frida (artist) 189
K’an Xul II (Maya king) 34–35
katun periods 13
Kearny, Stephen (U.S. general)
127
kidnapping, drug–related
267–268, 283
Kingsborough, Lord (Irish
theorist) 4
Kohunlich 24c
L
Labastida Ochoa, Francisco
(presidential candidate) 242,
243
labor
under Alemán 199
under Ávila Camacho
198–199, 280
under Calles 180
under Cárdenas 185
Constitution of 1917 and
172, 280
emigration of 211, 226–
227, 250–251, 270, 282
Fox and 252–253
income inequality and
265
Indian 73–75, 90, 92,
154–155
under López Mateos 203
under Madero 164
maquiladoras and 263–
264
under Obregón 178
oil companies and 186
organized 158, 173
under Ruiz Cortines 199
Labyrinth of Solitude (Paz) 217
Lacandón Maya 72
La catrina (Posada) 152
“La Cucuracha” 169
land
Constitution of 1917 and
171–172, 280
encomienda and 64–65,
73, 75, 89
policy under Ávila
Comacho 199
policy under Calles 184t
policy under Cárdenas
184–185
policy under Carranza
173–174, 184t
under Díaz 154–155
policy under López Mateos
203
policy under Madero 164
policy under Obregón
177–178, 184t
Zapata and 165, 171
Landa, Diego de (friar) 68, 69
land bridge, Bering 6
land grants
hacienda system and 89
labor and 73, 75
system of 64–65
land transport
pre-Columbian 9
by rail 147–149
during the revolution of
1910 175
by road 197–198
Las Casas, Bartolomé de
(Catholic bishop) 49, 73, 74
La Venta
abandonment of 25
buildings of 26
chronology of 24c
Leal, Fernando (artist) 189
legacy, Spanish 99
Legoretto, Ricardo (architect)
266
Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastían
(president of Mexico) 134,
135, 141