Foster L.V. A Brief History of Mexico

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO

318

Ley Lerdo 134, 135, 154

Liberal Party, reforms of

132–141

life expectancy, average

under Cárdenas 190t

under PRI 239t

Like Water for Chocolate

(Esquivel) 217

Limantour, José Yves (financier)

145

Lincoln, Abraham (U.S.

president) 138

literacy. See education; writing

literary societies

Academia de San Juan de

Letrán 131

revolutionary 107–108

literature. See also writing

under Cárdenas 190

colonial 97

under the conservatives

217

in the neocolonial period

131

under PAN 266

Lombardo Toledano, Vicente

(labor leader) 185, 198

Lone Star Republic 124–125

long count, pre-Columbian

13, 15

López, Isác (Mixtec) 234

López Mateos, Adolfo

(president of Mexico) 202–

204, 281

López Obrador, Andrés Manuel

(presidential candidate)

255–258, 260, 261–262

López Portillo, José (president

of Mexico) 211–214, 281

López y Fuentes, Gregorio

(writer) 190

Lost Tribe of Israel 5

lowland region, southern 32–36

Madero, Francisco (president of

Mexico)

chronology of 279–280

v. Díaz 159

Revolution of 1910 and

161–164

as symbol of democracy

167

Madrazo, Roberto (presidential

candidate) 255

Madrid, Miguel de la (president

of Mexico) 214–217, 281

magical realism 218

maize. See also agriculture

Mexican Revolution of

1910 and 175, 176t

NAFTA and 247–248, 249

pre-Columbian civilizations

and 10–11, 18–19

production increases in

197t

Salinas and 226

shortage of 209

Malinche (slave girl) 52, 53

Mandoki, Luis (filmmaker)

267

Man Facing Infinity (Tamayo)

218

Marcos, Subcomandante (EZLN

leader) 245, 282

Marín, Mario (governor of

Puebla) 259

Marina (slave girl) 52, 53

maritime transport 88

Martí, Fernando (kidnap

victim) 267–268

Mastretta, Angeles (writer) 217

Mata, Filomena (publisher)

150

mathematics, pre-Columbian

Maximato, the 182. See

also Calles, Plutarco Elías

(president of Mexico)

Maximilian (emperor of

Mexico) 137–138, 279

Maya

agriculture of 10–11,

130, 155

assimilation and 72

Aztecs and 42

ball games of 17, 18–19

calendars of 13–15

Can Ek dynasty 102, 108

under Cárdenas 187

Caste Wars with 128, 130

chronology of 24c,

277–278

in the Classic period

32–36

distribution of 8–9

first contact with 5

maize and 10, 11

modern Zapatista 231–

232

Monte Albán and 37

in New Spain 87

Protoclassic period and 28

resurgent traditions of 228

writing and 12, 99

medicine

life expectancy and 190t

under López Mateos 203

under Salinas 231

mendicant friars

arrival of 66–67

chronology of 277–278

conversions by 67–68, 69

music and 97–99

in New Spain 85–87

Mendoza, Antonio de (Spanish

viceroy)

chronology of 278

reforms of 71, 73, 75

Mesilla Valley, sale of 123,

126m, 279

Mesoamerica, geography of

7–9

Mesoamerican Catholicism 68,

70–71

mestizos

Catholicism and 95

education of 178

indigenous resurgence

and 228

in New Spain 93–94

origins of 63

rebellion under 113–114

metate 10

Mexican–American War 125–

128, 279

Mexican Bolero (Mastretta) 217

Mexican Committee of

Correspondence 110–112

mexicanidad

art and 188–190, 218–220

education and 217–218

NAFTA and 229

Revolution of 1910 and

161

Mexican Revolution of 1910

anarchy during 169–171

beginning of 161–163

centennial of 269

chronology of 279–280

reconstruction period

176–191

society and 164–167

Mexico before the Conquest

(Rivera) 3

Mexico City

as capital of New Spain

81–83

founding of 60

invasion of 127–128

population of 88t

México: su evolución social

(Sierra) 151

Michoacán 24c

microcredit 266

Migrantes 2007 (Santiago) 251

migration

chronology of 282

remittances and 250–251

undocumented 211

U.S. response to 226–227,

270

military. See also war

Aztec 46

coups by 143–144

under Fox 245

under Huerta 168

under Juárez 140

319

INDEX

reduction of 195

Spanish 47–48, 52, 60

war on drugs and 260,

269, 283

Zedillo and 238–239

milpa 11, 130

mining

under Charles III 103

under Díaz 146, 147, 152

under Juárez 140

in the neocolonial period

129

in New Spain 87, 91–92

post-independence 118

revenues from 104t, 106

during the revolution of

1910 175–176

mirrors, obsidian 26

Mixtecs

agriculture of 91, 135

Aztecs and 42–43

chronology of 24c, 277

La Crisis and 234

in the neocolonial period

129

in New Spain 76–77, 94

resurgent traditions of

228

transnationalism of 251

urbanization of 203, 210

Mixtón Rebellion 72

Moctezuma (Aztec emperor)

Cortés and 52–54, 56–57,

59–60

empire of 45–47

first impression of

Europeans 4

Juan de Grijalva and 50

Teotihuacán and 29

Moctezuma, Lenor Cortés

(granddaughter of

Moctezuma) 63

modernization. See also

services, social

Bourbon 102–106

under Cárdenas 190–191

under Díaz 145–149

NAFTA and 226, 229–231

World War II and 196–

198

Molina del Ray, battle of 128

money, revolution of 1910

and 175

monopolies 264

Monroe Doctrine, Maximilian

and 138

Monsiváis, Carlos (writer) 217

Monte Albán

chronology of 24c, 277

city of 36–37

Moon, Pyramid of the 30

moral renovation 216–217,

281

Mora y del Río, José (Catholic

bishop) 181–182

mordidas 216

Morelos (state) 194m

Morelos, José María (rebel

leader) 278

Morelos y Pavón, José María

(rebel leader) 113m

Morones, Luis (labor leader)

178, 180

Morrow, Dwight (U.S.

ambassador) 182

mortality, infant

under Cárdenas 190t

under PRI 239t

mulattoes 93

muralist movement 188, 218,

280. See also individual

muralists

music

under Cárdenas 189–190

Catholicism and 97–99

myths

calendars and 11–15

creation 15–19

NAFTA. See North American

Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA)

Nahuas 228

Nahuatl, writing of 70

naming, calendar and 14

Napoléon I (emperor of the

French) 109

Napoléon III (emperor of the

French) 136, 137, 138

narcotics

Calderón and 259–260

corruption and 238–239

the military and 245, 283

violence and 267–268,

269

Narváez, Pánfilo de

(conquistador) 62m

National Action Party (PAN)

242–243, 244t

National Autonomous

University of Mexico

(UNAM)

chronology of 280

corruption and 200, 201

political activism and 206

National Institute of

Archaeology and History

(INAH) 217–218

nationalism, Díaz and 157–

158

nationalization, business 196–

198, 204, 208

National Museum of

Anthropology 218

National Peasants

Confederation (CNC),

founding of 184

Native Americans. See also race

under Cárdenas 184

Catholicism and 95

under Díaz 154–156

Fox and 245–246

independence and 108

under Juárez 140

modern Zapatista 231–

232

naming of 2

Reform Laws and 134,

135

resurgent traditions of

228

Social Darwinism and

156–157

treatment of 94

neocolonial period 128–141

Nervo, Amado (writer) 150

New Laws 73, 278

New Spain

chronology of 277–278

establishment of 78–79

exploration of 62m

furthest extent of 103m

population of 88t

settlement of 84m

Nezahualcóyotl, Cuidad 210

Nezahualcóyotl (Aztec king)

Niños Héroes 128, 196

Noche Triste 57–58, 277

“no reelection”

Cárdenas and 191

Díaz and 143–144, 158–

159, 162

Norten, Enrique (architect)

266

North American Free Trade

Agreement (NAFTA)

under Fox 247–250, 282

under Salinas 223, 226,

281

under Zedillo 235–236

Oaxaca

agriculture in 135

agriculture of 155

chronology of 24c

church architecture in 67

demonstrations in 252–

253, 283

Juárez and 132

Mixtec in 42–43, 76–77,

91, 94

Monte Albán and 36–37

population of 88t

Protoclassic period in 28

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO

320

Obama, Barack (U.S. president)

269, 283

Obregón, Álvaro (president of

Mexico)

administration of 177–

180

chronology of 280

Constitution of 1917 and

171

defeat of Carranza 174

defeat of Huerta 167, 169

defeat of Villa 170

obsidian

mirrors 26

Teotihuacán and 31

Ocampo, Melchor (Liberal

naturalist) 132, 136

Ochoa, Digna (human rights

lawyer) 245

O’Donoju, Juan (Spanish

viceroy) 115

O’Gorman, Juan (artist) 189,

200, 201

oil

under Calderón 260–262

under Cárdenas 185–187

under Díaz 152–153

export of 262t

falling prices and 270

Huerta and 169

under López Portillo 211–

212, 213, 214, 281

under de la Madrid 215

NAFTA and 235–236

Petróleos Mexicanos and

204, 283

production increases in

197t

during the revolution of

1910 175, 176t

U.S. interests and 179–

181

The Old Gringo (Fuentes) 217

Olmec civilization

chronology of 277

creation myths of 19

era of 1

Monte Albán and 37

and the Preclassic period

24–28

rubber and 16

Olympics, 1968 204–206,

281

omens, Aztec 46–47

one party democracy, PRI and

191, 216–217

open chapels, New World

67–68

Oportunidades program 265–

266, 270

Opossum Family 2006 (Jiménez)

219

Orozco, Gabriel (artist) 266

Orozco, José Clemente

(muralist)

Carnaval de Ideolgías 111

mexicanidad and 188–

189

The Trench 173

Orozco, Pascual, Jr. (revolu-

tionary) 162–163, 164

Ortiz de Domínguez, Josefa de

(rebel leader) 110–112

Pachuca, capital of Hidalgo

194m

Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de

(bishop viceroy) 97

Palenque

chronology of 24c

king of 34–35

PAN. See National Action Party

(PAN)

Pan-American Highway,

construction of 198

Partido Nacional

Revolucionario (PNR) 182

Party of the Mexican

Revolution (PRM) 191

pax Porfirana 144–145

Paz, Octavio (poet) 217

Pearson, Sir Weetman (later

Lord Cowdray) 153

PEMEX. See Petróleos

Mexicanos (PEMEX)

peninsulares

Bourbon reforms and

105–107

class and 92

flight of 118

population of 93t

peonage, debt

hacienda system and 90,

140

outlawed 138, 172

petrodollars 211–212, 213,

214. See also oil

Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX)

204, 260–262, 283

petroleum

under Calderón 260–262

under Cárdenas 185–187

under Díaz 152–153

export of 262t

falling prices and 270

Huerta and 169

under López Portillo 211–

212, 213, 214, 281

NAFTA and 235–236

under de la Madrid 215

Petróleos Mexicanos and

204, 283

production increases in

197t

during the revolution of

1910 175, 176t

U.S. interests and 179–

181

PFP. See Federal Preventive

Police (PFP)

Philip II (king of Spain) 78

Philip V (king of Spain) 102

piracy, European 78

Pius IX (pope) 135, 138

Plan de Ayala 165

Plan de San Luis Potosí 162

Plan of Córdoba 115

Plan of Iguala 115

“plough lands” 135

PNR. See Partido Nacional

Revolucionario (PNR)

poetry

Aztec 41

in the neocolonial period

131

police

the Bravi 144

corruption and 216, 245,

267–269

granaderos 205–206

PFP 252–253

rurales 140, 145

politics, pre-Columbian 19

Polk, James K. (U.S. president)

125–126

Poniatowska, Elena (writer)

217

popular culture 220

population

the environment and 230

growth under the

conservatives 209–211,

220–221

increase under Díaz 149,

157

policy on 281

urbanization of 203t,

204

Popul Vuh, Maya creation myth

in 17, 18

Porfiriato dictatorship 143–

160

Porfirio Díaz and the Científicos

(Siqueiros) 150

Posada, José Guadalupe (artist)

151–152

positivism, Porfirio Díaz and

151

Postclassic period

chronology of 24c, 277

civilizations of 37–43

poverty

under the conservatives

220–221

under Díaz 155–156

of indigenous peoples

228, 231–232

321

INDEX

in the neocolonial period

130–131

under PAN 265–266

under PRI 240

regional 256m

remittances and 250–251,

270

rural 247–250

under Salinas 229–231

under Zedillo 235

PPP. See Puebla to Panama Plan

(PPP)

PRD. See Democratic

Revolutionary Party (PRD)

Preclassic period 24–28, 277

pre-Columbian civilizations

anthropology and 217–

218

Aztec 45–47

calendars and 11–15

chronology of 277

cities of 1–2

creation myths of 15–19

distribution of 8

Olmec 24–28

origins of 2–6

resurgence of 228

presidency

of Alemán 197–198, 199,

200, 280

of Ávila Camacho 195–

199, 201, 280

of Calderón 258–265,

268, 282–283

of Calles 180–182

of Cárdenas 182–191,

280

of Carranza 172–174

of Díaz 143–160, 279–280

of Díaz Ordaz 204–206,

281

of Echeverría 207–211, 281

of Fox 241–254, 282

of Guadalupe Victoria

119–120

of Huerta 167–169

of Iturbide 118–119

of Juárez 132–141, 279

of López Mateos 202–204,

281

of López Portillo 211–

214, 281

of Madero 163–164,

279–280

of de la Madrid 214–217,

281

of Obregón 177–180

of Ruiz Cortines 199, 202

of Salinas de Gortari 223–

232, 236–237, 281

of Santa Anna 279

of Zedillo 232–240, 254,

282

press, freedom of

under Díaz 150, 157

under Fox 244

PRI. See Institutional

Revolutionary Party (PRI)

priests, as rebel leaders

110–114

Prieto, Guillermo (poet) 132

PRM. See Party of the Mexican

Revolution (PRM)

“Profecía de Guatimoc”

(Galván) 131

Project Gunrunner 283

Protoclassic period 24c, 28, 277

provinces of New Spain 84–88

Proyecto Mesoamérica 263

psychoducts, Mayan 32

public service, Native American

Puebla

battle of 135–136, 279

capital of state of Puebla

194m

population of 88t

Puebla to Panama Plan (PPP)

262–263

pulque

alcoholism and 64

gods and 19

monopoly on 105–106

revenues from 103–104

trade and 9

pyramids, New World 29–30

Querétaro

battle of 138

capital of state of

Querétaro 194m

Quetzalcoatl (Mayan god)

18, 59

Quintana Roo, Maya in 187

quinto, royal 92

race. See also Indians

art and 97

assimilation and 99

Bourbon reforms and

106–109

class and 92–94

education and 178

independence and 113–

114, 115

Mexican Revolution of

1910 and 165

Social Darwinism and

156–157

railroads, Díaz and 147–149

Ramírez Vásquez, Pedro

(architect) 218

Ramos, Domingo (Mixtec

cacique) 94

realism, magical 218

rebellion. See also war

areas of 113m

Cristero 181–182, 280

de la Huerta 179–180

Mexican Revolution of

1910 161–176, 269

Native American 72, 108

records, written

Aztec 70

Mayan 12, 32–35, 69, 99

Mixtec 42

Monte Albáno 37

New Spain and 78–79

Postclassic 38

printing press and 97

Teotihuacán and 31–32

reelection, presidential

Cárdenas and 191

Díaz and 143–144, 158–

159, 162

referendum process 261–262

Reform Laws, Liberal

chronology of 279

Díaz and 145

Juárez and 133–135

Maximilian and 137

reforms, Bourbon 102–104

Reform War 135–136, 279

Regeneración 157

Regional Confederation of

Mexican Workers (CROM)

founding of 173

under Obregón 178

regions of New Spain 84–88.

See also individual regions

Regla, Count (mining baron)

106

religion, pre-Columbian

ball games and 17

calendars and 11–15

conversion and 68

human sacrifice and

18–22, 28–29, 38,

56–57, 68

omens and 46–47

remittances, poverty and 250–

251, 270

renovation, moral. See moral

renovation

repartimiento system 90, 92

Revillagigedo, Count of

(Bourbon viceroy) 104

Revolution of 1910

anarchy during 169–171

beginning of 161–163

centennial of 269

chronology of 279–280

reconstruction period

176–191

society and 164–167

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO

322

Revolution of Ayutla 132

rights, human

Calderón and 260

Fox and 245, 252–253

rituals, pre-Columbian

ball games and 17

calendars and 11–15

conversion and 68

human sacrifice and 18–

22, 28–29, 38, 56–57, 68

omens and 68

Rivera, Diego (Mexican

painter)

education and 179

Emiliano Zapata 166

mexicanidad and 188–189

Mexico before the Conquest

(Rivera) 3

Mexico of Yesterday 51

Roosevelt, Franklin D. (U.S.

president) 187, 196

round, calendar 14–15

royal fifth 92

rubber

first ball made of 16–17

trade in 26

Ruiz, Ulises (governor of

Oaxaca) 253, 259

Ruiz Cortines, Adolfo

(president of Mexico) 199,

202, 280–281

Ruiz Massieu, José (PRI

secretary general) 232,

236–237, 282

rurales 140, 145

sacred round calendar, pre-

Columbian 14

sacrifice, human

in the Classic period

28–29

conquistadores and 56–57

creation myths and 18–22

the Crucifixion and 68

Postclassic 38

Sahagún, Bernardino de (friar)

70, 75

Sainz, Gustavo (writer) 217

Salinas, Raúl (president’s

brother)

arrest of 236–237

chronology of 282

drug earnings of 238

release of 254

Salinas de Gortari, Carlos

(president of Mexico)

administration of 223–

232

chronology of 281

corruption and 236–237,

254

San Andrés Accords 232,

245–246, 282

San José Magote 24c

San Lorenzo

abandonment of 25

buildings of 26

chronology of 24c

San Luis Potosí, Plan de 162

Santa Anna, Antonio López

(president of Mexico)

chronology of 279

against the French at

Veracruz 128–129

life of 120–123

Mexican-American War

and 127

Revolution of Ayutla and

132

Texan revolt and 124–125

Santiago, Alejandro (artist)

251

Schulenberg, Guillermo

(Catholic abbot) 227

science, pre-Columbian 11–15

Scott, Winfield (U.S. general)

127–128

“second conquest,” Reform

Laws as 134

services, social. See also

modernization

under Calderón 258

under Cárdenas 190–191

under Echeverría 208

Fox and 246, 254

under López Mateos 203

under PAN 265–266

under PRI 239t, 240

regional 256m

under Salinas 231

shaft tombs 24c

shared development 208

Sierra, Justo (writer) 151

Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos de

(poet) 97

silver. See also mining

under Díaz 147

expatriation of 118

under Juárez 140

mining of 87, 91–92, 103

in the neocolonial period

129

revenues from 104t,

106–107

during the revolution of

1910 176t

Spanish economy and 102

Siqueiros, David Alfaro

(muralist)

mexicanidad and 188–189

Porfirio Díaz and the

Científicos 150

sisal

economics of 140

land and 154–155

during the revolution of

1910 175, 176t

“Six-Year Plan” 183

slavery

African 93

encomienda as 64–65

officially ended 119

outlawed 73, 278

Spanish 50, 52, 53

in Texas 124

Slim, Carlos (third-wealthiest

man in the world) 265

smallpox

conquest of Tenochtitlán

and 58

depopulation by 74

Social Darwinism 151,

156–157

social security. See Instituto

Mexicano de Seguro Social

(IMSS)

social services. See also

modernization

under Calderón 258

under Cárdenas 190–191

under Echeverría 208

Fox and 246, 254

under López Mateos 203

under PAN 265–266

under PRI 239t, 240

regional 256m

under Salinas 231

solar calendar, pre-Columbian

soldaderas 168, 261

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. See

Cruz, Sor Juana Inés de la

(poet)

Soto, Hernando de

(conquistador) 62m, 278

southern lowland region, Maya

in 32–36

Spain. See also conquistadores

colonization by 62m,

78–79

Speaking Cross, cult of 130

Splendors of Thirty Centuries

exhibit 219

states, Mexican 194m

strikes, labor

under Carranza 173

under Díaz 158

under Fox 252–253

student activism

under Díaz Ordaz 204–

206, 281

Fox and 245, 282

Subcomandante Marcos (EZLN

leader) 245, 282

Sun, Pyramid of the

creation myths and 29–30

dimensions of 31

323

INDEX

survey, vacant lands 154

symmetry, Teotihuacáno 31

syncretism, religious,

conversion and 68, 70–71

Taino Indians, extinction of 49

Tamayo, Rufino (artist) 189,

218

Tarascan 24c

Taylor, Zachary (U.S. general)

126–127

Teapot Dome scandal 179

technocrats, PRI 225

technology, Olmec 26

Tecuichpo (daughter of

Moctezuma) 53, 63

telenovelas 220

Tenochtitlán

construction of 40

under Moctezuma 45–46

painting of 3

population of 1

Spanish conquest of

54–58, 277

Teotihuacán

chronology of 24c, 277

in the Classic period

28–32

Great Goddess of 25

the Maya and 33

Monte Albán and 37

population of 1

renaming of 79

tequío 73

Terrazas, Luis (hacendado)

162

Texas 123–125, 279

textiles, pre-Columbian 53

Thinking about Death (Kahlo)

189

Thompson, Edward (U.S.

consul) 153

Tierra y Libertad 165

Tlatelolco

chronology of 281, 282

Díaz Ordaz and 204–206

Fox and 245

Tlatilco 24c

tlatoani (Aztec speaker) 47

Tlaxcala

capital of state of Tlaxcala

194m

population of 88t

tobacco

monopoly on 105–106

revenues from 103–104

Toledo, Francisco (artist) 218

Toltec civilization 24c

tombs, shaft 24c

Tonantzín. See Virgin of

Guadalupe

Toniná Stone Monument 16,

Torres Bodet, Jaime (education

minister) 201

Toro, Guillermo del (filmmaker)

266

trade

Aztec 40

Catholicism and 95–96

under Díaz 146–149,

152–154

under Echeverría 208

under Fox 246–250

future prospects for

269–270

under Juárez 140–141

under López Mateos 204

under López Portillo

211–212, 213–214

under de la Madrid 214–

215, 216

in Mexico City 82

Mixtec 42–43

Monte Albáno 37

in the neocolonial period

129–131

in New Spain 88–92

Olmec 26–28

under PAN 262–266

petroleum and 180–181,

186–187

Postclassic 38

post-independence

118–119

pre-Columbian 9, 16

during the revolution of

1910 175–176

under Salinas 225–227,

229–231

Spanish 78

with the United States

124

women and 53

World War II and 196–

198

under Zedillo 234–236,

239

transnationalism x, 250–251

transparency, governmental

corruption and 268–269

under Fox 244–245

transport

maritime 88

pre-Columbian 9

by rail 147–149

during the Revolution of

1910 175

by road 197–198

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

126m, 128

tree, world 18, 68

The Trench (Orozco) 173

Trent, Council of 75–78

Tres Zapotes 24c

tribute

Aztec collection of 40,

42–43, 46

Spanish collection of 89,

104t, 106

Trujillo, Victor (journalist)

244

Truman, Harry (U.S. president)

196

Tula 39, 277

Tulum Mayapán 24c

UNAM. See National

Autonomous University of

Mexico (UNAM)

undocumented workers

population pressure and

211

remittances and 250–251

U.S. response to 226–227,

270

United Front for Women’s

Rights 201

“unknown soldier”. See Ávila

Camacho, Manuel (president

of Mexico)

urban plan, Teotihuacáno 31

useful vote, 2000 elections

and 243

Uxmal 24c

vacant lands survey, Porfiriato

154

Valenciana, Count (silver

baron) 106–107

vaqueros 90

Vasconcelos, José (minister of

education)

chronology of 280

mexicanidad and 178–179,

188

resignation of 180

Velasco, José María (painter)

146, 151

Velasco, Luis de (Spanish

viceroy) 71–73

Velázquez, Diego (governor of

Cuba) 49–50

Velázquez, Fidel (labor leader)

198, 240, 282

Veracruz

bombardment of 127

U.S. marine landing at

169

viceroy, colonial 82–83, 87

Victoria, Guadalupe (rebel

leader and president of

Mexico) 114, 115, 119–120

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEXICO

324

Villa, Pancho (revolutionary)

assassination of 179

chronology of 280

Huerta and 167, 169

pensioning of 177

race and 165

Terrazas family and

162–163

U.S. intervention against

170–171

Villagómez, Gabriel (Mixtec

cacique) 129

violence, drug–related 267–

268, 269, 283

Virgin of Guadalupe

Basilica of 96

Catholicism and 227

independence and 112,

113

syncretism and 68, 71

Volpi, Jorge (writer) 266

voting

2006 congressional 259t

citizenship and 270–271

PRI domination of 191,

216–217, 241–244, 255

in referendums 261–262

reforms of 233–234,

256–258

rigged 224–225

Tlatelolco massacre and

206–207

women’s rights and 201,

281

Zedillo and 240

wage, minimum 230. See also

labor

Wal-Mart 263

war. See also military

Aztec practice of 46

Caste Wars 128, 130

dirty 206–207, 245, 281,

282

with France 136–139

human sacrifice and

20–21, 40

Mexican-American 125–

128, 279

for pastries 128–129

Reform Laws and 134–

136, 279

Revolution of 1910

161–176

Spanish practice of 47–48,

52, 60

for Texan independence

123–125

World War II 195–196

western Mexico 24c

Where the Air Is Clear (Fuentes)

217

Wilson, Henry Lane (U.S.

ambassador) 164, 167

Wilson, Woodrow (U.S.

president)

Carranza and 171

chronology of 280

Huerta and 167, 169

women

in the army 168

under Cárdenas 190

education of 149–150

Equal Rights Amendment

for 281

Frida Kahlo 189

PEMEX reform and 261

pre-Columbian 53

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

voting rights for 201, 281

workers

under Alemán 199

under Ávila Camacho

198–199, 280

under Calles 180

under Cárdenas 185

Constitution of 1917 and

172, 280

emigration of 211, 226–

227, 250–251, 270, 282

Fox and 252–253

income inequality and 265

Indian 73–75, 90, 92,

154–155

under López Mateos 203

under Madero 164

maquiladoras and 263–

264

under Obregón 178

oil companies and 186

organized 158, 173

under Ruiz Cortines 199

world tree, pre-Columbian

18, 68

worldview, pre-Columbian

15–19

writing

Aztec 70

Mayan 12, 32–35, 69, 99

Mixtec 42

Monte Albáno 37

New Spain and 78–79

Postclassic 38

printing press and 97

Teotihuacán and 31–32

xenophobia, oil and 186

Xipe Totec (god of spring) 20

Xochicalco 24c

Yanga (runaway slave) 93

Yaqui Indians 154–155

Yucatán

agriculture of 155

Can Ek dynasty in 102,

108

chronology of 24c

Maya seizure of 128, 130

population of 88t

railroad bypass of 148

Spanish and 49–50, 87

zambos 93

Zapata, Emilio (revolutionary)

Carranza against 171,

174

chronology of 280

class and 165, 170

Huerta and 168–169

land rights and 167

against Madero 164

mural of 166

Zapatista Army of National

Liberation (EZLN)

chronology of 282

Fox and 245–246

native resurgence and 228

Salinas and 231–232

Zapotec civilization 36–37, 42

Zaragoza, Ignacio (Mexican

general) 136

Zedillo, Ernesto (president of

Mexico) 232–240, 254, 282

Zempoala 24c

Zenil, Nahum (artist) 219

zero, concept of 13

Zuloaga, Félix (general) 135

Zumárraga, Juan de (bishop)

67, 71, 75