Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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appearedmagically—momentsafterthehistoricNixon‐Chouhandshakehadbeen

consummatedinsplendidsolitude.



Westoodonawindswepttarmac,greetedbyanhonorguard,thefrailand

elegantfigureofChouEn‐lai,andacollectionofChinesenotablesexhibitingin

theiridenticalMaojacketsnodiscerniblehierarchy,thoughofcoursetheywere

linedupinpreciseorderofpoliticalstanding.Thereceptionwasunderstatedin

theextreme.Exceptforthe350‐manhonorguard—perhapsinitsrigiddiscipline

themostimpressiveofanyIsawonPresidentialtrips—itwasstarktothepointof

austerity.Thisveryseverityreflectedthetruththatonlythemostdirene cessity

couldbringtogethercountrieswhoseotherrelationswarrantednoneofthejoyful

ceremonyusuallyassociatedwithstatevisits. 



Wehadbeengivennoindicationwhetheranykindofpublicwelcomewas

beingplanned.Asourmotorcadespedinto thecenteroftowntherewasstill

someerranthopecracklingoverHaldeman’sradiotoZieglerthatperhapsthereal

welcomingceremonyinvolvingphotogenicChinesemultitudesmightbeawaiting

usatTienAnMensquare.Thehopewasvain.Theever‐presentChinesecrowds

wereheldbackinthesidestreetsasourmotorcadesweptthroughthesquare,

vastinitsemptiness;pasttheredwallsoftheForbiddenCityononeside,the

massive,squatGreatHallofthePeopleontheother;byhugeportraitsofMarx,

Engels,Lenin,andStalin(surelyoneofthelastofStalintobeondisplayanywhere

intheworld);andontothestateguesthouseslocatedaroundtheoldImperial

fishinglake.



Wewerehousedintwooftheresidences,thePresidentandmostofhis

staff(includingme)inthelargerone;theSecretaryofStateandhisentouragein

thesmallresidence(afewhundredyardsaway)thatIhadusedonmyprevious

trips.Eachhaditsowndiningfacilities,thuskeepingspontaneouscontact

betweenthetwoAmericanbureaucraciestoaminimum.TheChinesehadwell

understoodthestrangechecksandbalanceswithintheExecutiveBranchandhad

re‐createdthephysicalgulfbetweentheWhiteHouse andFoggyBottominthe

heartofPeking.



OnarrivalatthePresidentialguesthouse,theentirepartywasseatedin

easychairsarrangedinacircleintheverylargelivingroom,withalargeopen

areainthecenter.ChouEn‐lai’swifewastheretogreetus,aswereMarshalYeh

Chien‐ying,ActingForeignMinisterChiP’eng‐fei,DeputyForeignMinisterCh’iao

Kuan‐hua,andotherofficials.Teawasbrought.Chouledafriendly,bantering

conversationinwhich,asalways,hemanagedtopayattentiontoeverymember

oftheAmericanparty.



InthismannerNixonwasexposedforthefirsttimetotheChinesestyleof

diplomacy.TheSovietstendtobeblunt,theChineseinsinuating.TheSoviets

insistontheirprerogativesasagreatpower. TheChineseestablishaclaimonthe

basisofuniversalprinciplesandademonstrationofself‐confidencethatattempts

tomaketheissueofpowerseemirrelevant.TheSovietsoffertheirgoodwillasa

prizeforsuccessinnegotiations.TheChineseusefriendshipasahalterinadvance

ofnegotiation;byadmittingtheinterlocutortoatleasttheappearanceof

personalintimacy,asubtlerestraintisplacedontheclaimshecanputforward.

TheSoviets,inhabitinga countryfrequentlyinvadedandmorerecentlyexpanding

itsinfluencelargelybyforceofarms,aretoounsureoftheirmoralclaimsto

admitthepossibilityoferror.Theymovefrominfallibledogmatounchangeable

positions(howeveroftentheymaymodifythem).TheChinese,havingbeen

culturallypreeminentintheirpartoftheworldformillennia,canevenuseself‐

criticismasatool.Thevisitorisaskedforadvice—agestureofhumilityeliciting

sympathyandsupport.Thispatternalsoservestobringoutthevisitor’svalues

andaims;heistherebycommitted,fortheChineselatercan(andoftendo)refer

tohisownrecommendations.TheSoviets,withalltheirstormyandoccasionally

duplicitousbehavior,leaveanimpressionofextraordinarypsychological 

insecurity.TheChinesestress,becausetheybelieveinit,theuniquenessof

Chinesevalues.Hencetheyconveyanauraofimperviousnesstopressure;

indeed,theypreemptpressurebyimplyingthatissuesofprinciplearebeyond

discussion.



IncreatingthisrelationshipChinese diplomats,atleastintheirencounters

withus,provedmeticulouslyreliable.Theyneverstoopedtopettymaneuvers;

theydidnothaggle;theyreachedtheirbottomlinequickly,explainedit

reasonably,anddefendedittenaciously.Theystucktothemeaningaswellasthe

spiritoftheirundertakings.AsChouwasfondofsaying:“Ourwordcounts.”Every

visittoChinawaslikeacarefullyrehearsedplayinwhichnothingwasaccidental

andyeteverythingappearedspontaneous.TheChineserememberedevery

conversation,fromthosewiththelowliestofficialstothosewiththemostsenior

statesmen.EachremarkbyaChinesewaspartofajigsawpuzzle,evenifatfirst

ourmoreliteralintelligencedidnotpickupthedesign.(LateronWinstonLord

andIactuallygotquitegoodat it.)OnmytenvisitstoChina,itwasasifwewere

engagedinoneendlessconversationwithanorganismthatrecalledeverything,

seeminglymotivatedbyasingleinte lligence.Thisgavetheencountersbothan

exhilaratingandoccasionallyaslightlyominousquality.Itengendereda

combinationofaweandsenseofimpotenceatsomuchdisciplineand

dedication—notunusualintheencounterofforeignerswithChineseculture.



AndsoitwasonNixon’svisit.Bythetimewehadtakentea,allpresentfelt

convinced—justasIhadsevenmonthsearlierduringmysecretvisit—th atthey

hadbeenadmittedinto averyexclusiveclub,thoughtherehadyettotakeplacea

singlesubstantiveconversation.



<<Contents>>

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****



MaoTse‐tung



hatconversationwasnotlongdelayed.Wehadjustfinishedanopulentlunch

whenat2:30IwastoldthatChouEn‐laineededtoseemeurgentlyinthe

receptionroom.Withouttheusualbanterhesaid:“ChairmanMaowouldliketo

seethePresident.”IaskedwhetherIcouldbringWinstonlord.Chouagreedand

wasuncharacteristicallypersistent:“SincetheChairmanisinvitinghimhewants

toseehimfairlysoon.”Idecidedtoplayitsomewh atcoolbyaskingChou

whetherhewouldreadhistoastattheevening’sbanquetorspeak

extemporaneously;heindicatedthathewouldreadit.Iinquiredwhetherours

shouldbemutedortough,torespondtohismood.Slightlyimpatiently,Chou

suggestedthathewouldsendmehistextinadvance.FinallyIsaidthatIwould

fetchNixon.

T



SothePresidentandIsetoffinChinesecarstotheImperialCityforthefirst

encounterwithoneofthecolossalfiguresofModernhistory. Lordcamealongas

note‐taker.Hispresencewasnotrevealed,lestsaltberubbedinthewoundsof

theDepartmentofstate,whichwentunrepresentedatanyofthetalkswithMao.

NixonhadtoldmefivedaysbeforethathewantedRogersandAssistantSecretary

ofStateMarshallGreentobeoccupiedelsewheresohecoulddiscusssensitive

matterswithMaoandChou.NorwasRogersinvitedtothemeetingbythe

Chinese,perhapsbecauseofcommentsthatstatehadmadeaboutTaiwan’s

“unsettled“juridicalstatusduringthepreviousyear.YetIcouldhaveinsistedthat

Rogerscome,andhadIdonesoneitherNixonnortheChinesewouldhave

refused;itisoneoftheprerogatives,indeedobligations,ofthesecurityadviserto

appealPresidentialdecisionsheconsidersunwise.Ididnot.Theneglectwas

technicallyunassailablebutfundamentallyunworthy.TheSecretaryofState

shouldnothavebeenexcludedfromthishistoricencounter.



MaoTse‐tung,therulerwhoselifehadbeendedicatedtooverturningthe

values,thestructure,andtheappearanceoftraditionalChina,livedinfactinthe

ImperialCity,aswithdrawnandmysteriousevenastheemperorshedisdained.

Nobodyeverhadascheduledappointment;onewasadmittedtoapresence,not

invitedtoagovernmentalauthority.IsawMaofivetimes.OneachoccasionIwas

summonedsuddenly,justasNixonwas.OnoneofmyvisitsMaoexpressedan

interestinmeetingmywife,Nancy.Thefactthatshewasshoppingpresentedno

obstacletoourhosts.Shewashustledoutofashopbyaprotocolofficerwho

seemedtoknowexactlywhereshewasandbroughttoMao’spresencewhileher

accompanyingStateDepartmentsecurityofficer,nowbereftofhischarge,was

lefttoventhisdismayaboutakidnappingincentralPekingtoastorekeeperwho

spokenoEnglish.



WeapproachedMao’sreside ncethrougharedgatewheretwosoldiersof

thePeople’sliberationArmyimpassivelyobservedthetrafficonthebroadEast‐

Westaxisroadthathasbeencarvedfromtheformercitywall.Afterpassingthe

vermilionwallwetraversedathoroughfare,atfirstlinedoneachsidewith

undistinguished‐lookingfacades;onecouldnottellwhatkindofhousesstoodin

thecourtyardsbehindthenondescriptexteriors.Amilefartheron,thedwellings

endedandtheroadfollowedalakeononesideandwoodsontheother.Mao’s

housestoodalone;itwassimpleandunimposing;itcouldhavebelongedtoa

minorfunctionary.Nospecialsecuritymeasureswereapparent.Thecardrove

rightuptothefrontdoor,whichwasshelteredbyaportico.Weenteredthrough

asmallsittingroomthatopenedintoawidehallway;onatleasttwoofmyvisits

itcontainedaPing‐Pongtable.



Mao’sstudy,amedium‐sizedroom,wasacrossthehallway.Manuscripts

linedbookshelvesalongeverywall;bookscoveredthetableandthefloor;it

lookedmoretheretreatofascholarthantheaudienceroomoftheall‐powerful

leaderoftheworld’smostpopulousnation.Onmyfirstfewvisitsasimplewood‐

framebedstoodinonecorner;lateritdisappeared.Ourfirstsightwasofa

semicircleofeasychairs,allwithbrownishslipcoversasifathriftymiddle‐class

familywantedtoprotectupholsterytooexpensivetoreplace.Betweeneachpair

ofchairsstoodaV‐shapedcoffeetable,coveredwithawhitenapkin,fittinginto

theanglemadebyadjoiningarmrests.ThetablesnexttoMao,beinggenerally

piledwithbooks,hadjustenoughroomfortheever‐presentcupofjasminetea.

Twostandinglampswithunusuallylargecircularshadesstoodbehindthechairs;

infrontofMao,tohisright,wasaspittoon.Whenoneenteredtheroom,Mao

rosefromoneoftheeasychairs;onthelastcoupleofvisitsherequiredtwo

assistants’help,butheneverfailedsotogreethisvisitors.



Oneusuallycannottellwhenmeetingafamousandpowerfulleaderto

whatextentoneisimpressedbyhispersonalityorawedbyhisstatusandrepute.

InMao’scasetherecouldbenodoubt.Exceptforthesuddennessofthe

summonstherewasnoceremony.Theinteriorappointmentswereasmodestas

theexterior.Maojuststoodthere,surroundedbybooks,tallandpowerfullybuilt 

foraChinese.Hefixedthevisitorwithasmileboth penetratingandslightly

mocking,warningbyhisbearingthattherewasnopointinseekingtodeceivethis

specialistinthefoiblesandduplicityofman.Ihavemetnoone,withthepossible

exceptionofCharlesdeGaulle,whosodistilledraw,concentratedwillpower.He

wasplantedtherewithafemaleattendantclosebytohelpsteadyhim(and on

mylastvisitstoholdhimup);hedominatedtheroom—notbythepompthatin

moststatesconfersadegreeofmajestyontheleaders,butbyexudinginalmost

tangibleformtheoverwhelmingdrivetoprevail.



Mao’sverypresencetestifiedtoanactofwill.Hiswastheextraordinary

sagaofapeasant’ssonfromSouthernChinawhoconceivedthegoaloftaking

overtheKingdomofHeaven,attractedfollowers,ledthemontheLongMarchof

sixthousandmiles,whichlessthanathirdsurvived,andfrom atotallyunfamiliar

territoryfoughtfirsttheJapaneseandthenthenationalistgovernment,until

finallyhewasensconcedintheImperialCity,bearingwitnessthatthemystery

andmajestyoftheeternalChinaenduredevenamidstarevolut ionthatprofessed

todestroyallestablishedforms.Therewerenotrappingsthatcouldaccountfor

thesenseofpowerMaoconveyed.Mychildrenspeakofthe“vibes”ofpopular

recordingartiststowhich,Imustconfess,Iamtotallyimmune.ButMao

emanatedvibrationsofstrengthandpowerandwill.InhispresenceevenChou

seemedasecondaryfigure,thoughsomeofthiseffectwasundoubtedlyby

design.ChouwastoointelligentnottounderstandthatthenumberTwoposition

inChinawasprecarioustothepointofbeing suicidal.Noneofhispredecessors

hadsurvived.[

Neither,infact,didhe.Iamconvinced—thoughIcannotproveit—thatonly

illnessanddeathsavedhimfromanassaultbywhatwaslatercalledtheGangofFour,

toleratedifnotbackedbyMao.Duringthelastyearorsoofhislifehewasrarelymentionedin

theChinesepressorbyotherChineseleaderstome.]



Mao’simpactwasallthemoreimpressivebecauseitwassoincongruousin

relationtohisphysicalcondition.Beforeourfirstmeetinghehadalreadysuffered

aseriesofdebilitatingstrokes.Hecouldmoveonlywithdifficultyandspeakbut

withconsiderableeffort.Wordsseemedtoleavehisbulkasifwithgreat

reluctance;theywereejectedfromhisvocalcordsingusts,eachofwhichseemed

torequireanewrallyingofphysicalforceuntilenoughstrengthhadbeen

assembledtotearforthanother roundofpungentdeclarations.Lateron,as

Mao’shealthdeterioratedevenfurther,theeffortbecamesoevidentastobe

painfultoobserve.InmylastprivatemeetingwithhiminOctober1975,aswellas

duringPresidentFord’svisitofDecember1975,Maocouldbarelyspeak;he

croakedgeneralsoundsthatNancyT’ang,WangHai‐jung,andanotheraidewrote

downafterconsultingwitheachotherandthenshowedhimtomakesurethey

hadunderstoodbeforetranslating.Andyeteventhen,intheshadowofdeath,

Mao’sthoughtswerelucidandsardonic.



Mao,incontrasttoallotherpoliticalleadersIhaveknown,almostnever

engagedinsoliloquies.Notforhimwerethepreparedpointsmoststatesmanuse,

eitherseeminglyextemporaneouslyorlearnedfromnotes.Hismeaningemerged

fromaSocraticdialoguethatheguidedeffortlesslyandwithdeceptive

casualness.Heembeddedhismainobservationsineasybanterandseeming

jokes,maneuveringhisinterlocutorforopportunitiestoinjectcommentsthat

weresometimesphilosophicalandsometimessarcastic.Thecumulativeeffect

wasthathiskeypointswereenvelopedinsomanytangentialphrasesthatthey

communicatedameaningwhileevadingacommitment.Mao’sellipticalphrases

werepassingshadowsona wall;theyreflectedarealitybuttheydidnot

encompassit.Theyindicatedadirectionwithoutdefiningtheroute ofmarch.

Maowoulddeliverdicta.Theywouldcatchthelistenerbysurprise,creatingan

atmosphereatonceconfusedandslightlymenacing.Itwasasifoneweredealing

withafigurefromanotherworldwhooccasionallyliftedacorneroftheshroud

thatveilsthefuture,permittingaglimpsebutnevertheentirevisionthathe

alonehasseen.



YetMaocouldbebrutalincuttingtotheheartofaproblem.Ononeofmy

latertripsIcommentedtoTengHsiao‐p’ingthattherelationsofourtwo

countrieswereonasoundbasi sbecauseneitheraskedanything oftheother.The

nextdayMaoreferredtomycommentandatoneandthesametimeshowedhis

attentiontodetail.Hefirmlyrebuttedmybanality:“Ifneithersidehadanything

toaskfromtheother,whywouldyoubecomingtoPeking?Ifneithersidehad

anythingtoask,thenwhy…wouldwewanttoreceiveyouandthePresident?”At

anotherpointheindicatedhisdispleasurewithwhathetooktobeAmerican

ineffectualityinresistingSovietexpansionism;hecomparedustoswallowsinthe

faceofastorm:“Thisworldisnottranquil,”saidthegustspainfullyemittedfrom

theshatteredhulk,“andastorm—thewindandrain—arecoming.Andatthe

approachofthewindandraintheswallowsarebusy…Itispossibletopostpone

thearrivalofthewindandrain,butitisdifficultytoobstructthecoming.”



Thiswasthecolossusintowhosepresencewewerenowbeingushered.He

greetedNixonwithhischaracteristicsidewiseglance.“Ourcommonoldfriend,

GeneralissimoChiangKai‐shek,doesn’tapproveofthis,”hejoked,takingNixon’s

handinbothhisownandwelcominghiminfrontofthephotographerswithgreat

cordiality—initselfaneventofconsiderablesymbolicsignificance,atleastforthe

ChinesewhowerepresentorwhowouldseethephotographinthePeople’s

Daily.MaoremarkedaboutastatementNixonhadmadeontheplanerideto

Ch’iaoKuan‐hua,thatheconsideredMaoamanwithwhomphilosophical

discoursewaspossible.(Thiswasyetanotherexampleoftheextraordinarilyrapid

Chineseinternalcommunication,aswellasofMao’scarefulbriefing.) Maojoked

thatphilosophywasa“difficultproblem”;hehadnothinginstructivetosayonthe

subject;maybeDr.Kissingershouldtakeovertheconversation.Butherepeated

theformulaseveraltimestoavoidspecificsontheinternationalproblemsNixon

wasraising.WhenNixonputforwardalistofcountriesrequiringcommon

attention,Mao’sresponsewascourteousbutfirm:“Thosequestions arenot

questionstobediscussedinmyplace.Theysho uldbediscussedwiththePremier.

Idiscussthephilosophicalquestions.”



Nixon’smemoirsgiveagraphicandaccurateaccountofthemeeting.



TherewerethejokesaboutmygirlfriendsandhowIusedthemtosetupacover

formysecretjourneys.Therewasamockingexchangeabouttheepithetsthe

leadersofTaipeiandPekingwerehurling ateachother.Therewasan

extraordinaryindicationofMao’spreferenceforthegreatercalculabilityof

conservativeleadersoverthesentimentaloscillationsofliberals:“Ivotedforyou

duringyourelection,”hetoldthestartledNixon.“Peoplesayyouarerightists,

thattheRepublicanPartyistotherig ht,thatPrimeMinisterHeathisalsotothe

right…Iamcomparativelyhappywhenthesepeopleontherightcomeinto

power.”



MaousedthecontextofagenerallyteasingconversationaboutNixon’s

politicalprospectstomentionhisownpolit icalopposition.Therewasa

“reactionarygroupwhichisopposedtoourcontactwithyou,”hesaid.“Theresult

wasthattheygotonanairplaneandfledabroad.”TheplanecrashedinOuter

Mongolia,MaoandChouexplained,incasewehadmissedthereferencetoLin

Piao.Nixonmadeaneloquentstatement(reproducedinhismemoirs)ofhislong

journeyfromanti‐CommunismtoPeking,basedonthepropositionthatthe

foreignpolicyinterestsofthetwocountrieswerecompatibleandneither

threatenedtheother.Maousedtheoccasiontogiveusanimportantassurance

withregardtoouralliesasifthethoug hthadoccurredtohimonlywhileNixon

wasspeaking:“neitherdowethreatenJapanorSouthKorea.”Lateron,asI

comprehendedbetterthemany‐layereddesignofMao’sconversation,I

understoodthatitwaslikethecourtyardsintheForbiddenCity,eachleadingtoa

deeperrecessdistinguishedfromtheothersonlybyslightchangesofproportion,

withultimatemeaningresidinginatotalitythatonlylongreflectioncouldgrasp.

InthepleasantriesrecordedbyNixontherewerehintsandthemesthat,likethe

overturetoaWagneropera,neededelaborationbeforetheirmeaningbecame

evident.



Maowaselliptical,forinstance,inconveyinghisdecisiontoexpandtrade

andexchangeswithus.HecouchedthisintheformofanexplanationofChina’s

slownessinrespondingto Americaninitiativesovertwoyears.Chinahadbeen

“bureaucratic”initsapproach,hesaid,ininsistingallalongthatthemajorissues

hadtobesettledbeforesmallerissuesliketradeandpeople‐to‐peopleexchanges

couldbeaddressed.“LateronIsawyouwereright,andweplayedtabletennis.”

Thiswasmorethanarecitationofhistoryandadisarmingapology;itmeantthat

therewouldbeprogresswithrespecttotradeandexchangesatthesummit,asI

hadurgedonChouduringmytripinOctober.Mao,inshort,hadwilledthevisitto

beasuccess.AfterourpresencereceivedMao’simprimatur,allChineseofficials

seemedtohavelittledifficultydiscerningtheinstructionsoftheChairman.

Phrasesoriginallyobscuretomewerequotedasindicatingadirection.Duringthe

weekthatfollowed,alltheChinese—andespecially Chou—keptcomingbacktime

andagaintoMao’sthemes,whichgrewoutofaconversationlastingonlysixty‐

fiveminutes,halfofitconsumedintranslation.



Amidsttheteasing,thejokes,thelightrepartee,onehadtopayattention,

forMaowasputtingforwardmajorpointsinamannerdeliberatelyoffhandso

thatfailureoftheNixonvisitwouldnotinvolvealossofface.Hedelicatelyplaced

theissueofTaiwanonasubsidiarylevel,choosingtotreatitasarelativelyminor

internalChinesedispute;hedidnotevenmentionourmilitarypresencethere.

Theonlyspecificpoliticalreferenceto itwasinthebanteraboutthenamesthe

twogroupswerecallingeachother.Andeventhiswasawayoftellingusthat

ultimatelytheChinesewouldfindtheirownsolutions.Referringtotheiralliance

intheTwenties,MaoremindedNixonthat“actually,thehistoryofourfriendship

withhim[ChiangKai‐shek]ismuchlongerthanthehistoryofyourfriendshipwith

him.”Neitherthen,norinanysubsequentmeeting,didMaoindicateany

impatienceoverTaiwan,setanytimelimits,makeanythreats,ortreatitasthe

touchstoneofourrelationship.”Wecandowithoutthemforthetimebeing,and

letitcomeafter100years.”“Whysuchgreathaste?”“Thisissue[Taiwan]isnot

animportantone.Theissueoftheinter nationalsituationisanimportantone.”

“ThesmallissueisTaiwan,thebigissueistheworld.”ThesewereMao’sthoughts

onTaiwanasexpressedtousonmanyvisits.(ThesewerealsotheviewsofChou

En‐laiandTengHsiao‐p’ing.)ButMao,likeChouandTeng,spentverylittletimein

ourtalksonthisissue.



WhatconcernedMaothen,andevenmorefullywhenIsaw himlateralone

atgreaterlength,wastheinternationalcontext—thatis,theSovietUnion.Toa

longdisquisitionbyNixononthequestionofwhichofthenuclearsuperpowers,

theUnitedStatesortheSovietUnion,presentedagreaterthreat,Maoreplied:

“Atthepresenttime,thequestionofaggressionfromtheUnitedStatesor

aggressionfromChinaisrelativelysmall…Youwanttowithdrawsomeofyour

troopsbackonyoursoil;oursdonotgoabroad.”Inotherwords,byaprocessof

elimination,theSovietUnionwasclearlyMao’sprincipalsecurityconcern.Equally

importantwastheellipticalassurance,laterrepeatedbyChou,whichremoved

thenightmareoftwoadministrationsthatChinamightinterveneinIndochina

militarily.InforeclosingChinesemilitaryinterventionabroadandinthe

commentsonJapanandSouthKorea,MaowastellingusthatPekingwouldnot

challengevitalAmericaninterests.AndsinceWesternerswerenotoriouslyslow‐

witted,MaorevertedtoarecurrentthemeofmymeetingswithChou:“Ithink

that,generallyspeaking,peoplelikemesoundalotofbigcannons.Thatis,things

like‘thewholeworldshoulduniteanddefeatimperialism,revisionism,andall

reactionaries,andestablishsocialism.’“Mao,secondedbyChou,laughed

uproariouslyatthepropositionthatanyonemighttakeseriouslyadecades‐old

sloganscrawledoneverypublicposterinChina.TheleadersofChinawere

beyondideologyintheirdealingswithus.Theirperilhadestablishedtheabsolute

primacyofgeopolitics.Theywereineffectfreeingonefrontbyatacit

nonaggressiontreatywithus.



Notallwasstrategy,however,intheencounterwithMao.Eveninourbrief

meetinghecouldnotescapethenightmarethatshadowedhisaccomplishments

andtormentedhislastyears:thatitmightallproveephemeral,thatthe

exertions,thesuffering,theLongMarch, thebrutalleadershipstruggleswouldbe

butabriefincidentinthetriumphant,passiveper sistenceofamillennialculture

whichhadtamedallpreviousupheavals,leavinglittlemoreintheirwakethanthe

ripplesofastonefallingintoapond.“TheChairman’swritingsmovedanation

andhavechangedtheworld,”saidNixon.“Ihavenotbeenabletochangeit,”

repliedMao,notwithoutpathos.“Ihaveonlybeenabletochangeafewplacesin

thevicinityofPeking.”



Itwasamodestclaimaftera lifetimeoftitanicstruggletouprootthevery

essenceofhissociety.Initsmatter‐of‐factresignat ionitunderlinedthe

revolutionarydilemma.Thequalitiesneededtodestroyareusuallynotthose

neededtosustain:Thegreatertheupheaval,themoreitmayleadtoanew

apparatusevenmorepervasiveandusuallymuchmoreefficientthantheone

replaced.Revolutionsconductedinthenameoflibertymoreoftenthannot

refinenewtoolsofauthority.Thisisnoaccident.Academiciansmaydefine

humanfreedombyconceptsofhumanrights;historiansunderstandthatfreedom

residesnotonlyinlegalstructuresbutinthegeneralacceptanceofinstitutions

andtheeaseofhumanrelationships. Asocietynotscourgedbyirreconcilable

schismscanpracticetoleranceandrespecthumandignityevenintheabsenceof

legallydefinedrights.Toleranceisinher entinitsstructure.Britainhasneverhada

writtenconstitution;civilrightsareguaranteedbytradition.Butanationrivenby