Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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Theremainingtechnicalproblemssolvedthemselvesaseasilyaswas

compatiblewiththeobsessivesingle‐mindedness oftheadvancemen.The

communicationsexpertcameupwithanambitiousplanthatwouldhave

preemptedeverytelephonelineinPeking.ItoldChouthatbythetimewegot

throughhewouldsurelybeabletocallWashington;whetherhecouldstillreach

Shanghaiwasanothermatter.Theheadofoursecuritydetaildistinguished

himselfbyrequestingalistofsubversivesineachlocalitythePresidentwaslikely

tovisit.Thisraisedaninterestingproblem,becauseinChinaconservative

Republicanswouldundoubtedlybeclassedassubversivesandifweaskedhow

manyCommunistsympathizerstherewerewewouldgettheunsettlinganswerof

800million.Oursecurityexpertalsofiercelyresistedthepropositionthatthe

PresidentmighttravelinaChineseplaneoraChineselimousine—inhismanual

therewerenoreliableforeignersandnoreliableforeignmachines.Eventually,

Nixonhadto overrulehim.



ChouandIspentovertwenty‐fivehourstogetherreviewingtheworld

situation,anotherfifteenworkingonastatementthatlatercametobeknownas

theShanghaiCommuniqué.Theworldreviewfollowedthepatternestablishedin

Julybutwentintomoredepth. ChouandIunderstoodthatwewereinno

positiontomakeformalagreements.Wecouldstrivetounderstandeachother’s

purposesandtactics.Totheextentthattheywerecompatibletheywouldleadto

complementarypolicies.



IhavealreadyexpressedmyappreciationofChou’soutstandingqualities.I

metnoleader—withtheexceptionofdeGaulle—withanequalgraspofworld

events.Hisknowledgeofdetailwasastonishing,butwheremanyleadersuse

detailtoavoidcomplexity,Choualsohadanextraordinarygraspofthe

relationshipofevents.Hewasadedicate dideologue,butheusedthefaiththat

hadsustainedhimthroughdecadesofstruggletodisciplineapassionatenature

intooneofthemostacuteandunsent imentalassessmentsofrealitythatIhave

encountered.Choudidnotidentifyleadershipwiththeproclamationofpersonal

idiosyncrasies.Heunderstoodthatstatesmencannotinventreality,andwasfond

ofquotinganoldChineseproverb:“Thehelmsmanmustguidetheboat byusing

thewaves;otherwiseitwillbesubmergedbythewaves.”Statesmanshiprequired

aknowledgeofwhatcouldnotbechangedaswellasanunderstandingofthe

scopeavailableforcreativity.Inthisextraordinarymanner—withoutever

discussingcommonactions—didtheUnitedStatesandthePeople’sRepublic

continuetheprocessofcoordinatingtheirapproachestotheissuesofglobal

peaceandequilibrium.



ThemostdramaticencounterwasoverthecommuniquéforNixon’svisit.

Theoutsideobservertendstobelieve,andisencouragedtodosobyheadsof

government,thatthesejointprono uncementsgrowspontaneouslyoutofthe

discussionstheypurporttosummarize.Theoppositeisusuallytrue.The

discussionsofheadsofgovernmentareframedbya communiquéusuallydrafted

beforehand.Toleavecommuniquédraftingfortheactualvisitistocourtdisaster.

Theprotocolfunctionsconsumetoomuchtime;thedangerofrunningupagainst

adeadlineistoogreat.Headsofgovernmentshouldusetheirtimeatsummitryto

gainaninsightintotheperceptionsandthinkingoftheircounterparts,notto

quibbleoverlanguage.Thiswillhelpthemmakedecisionsinthefuture;itmay

makeallthedifferenceincrises.



Nixonhadgivenmeauthoritytonegotiatethecommuniquéforhisvisit.I

couldcommunicatewithWashingtonbytheteletypeonmyairplane,butNixon

hadnostaffavailableto vetmyrecommendations—alltheChinaexpertswere

withme.Nordidheseekto;asinallnegotiationsafter1971hehadgivenmea

wideareaofdiscretion.Nixonhadseenandapprovedadraftcommuniqué

preparedbymeandmystaff.Itfollowedtheconventionalstyle,highlightingfuzzy

areasofagreementandobscuringdifferenceswithplatitudinousgeneralizations ;

inthiscaseitclearlyimpliedmorecommongroundthanactuallyexisted.I

handedoverthisdrafttoChouEn‐laiontheeveningofOctober22.Thenext

eveningChougavemehisinitialreaction—thatourdraftcouldserveasabasisfor

discussion.Naturally,theChinesewouldwanttoaddtheirviewsinsomeplaces;

ActingForeignMinisterChiP’eng‐feiwouldbegintheredraftingprocesswithme

thenextmorning.



Tomysurprise,attheappointedhourthePremierhimselfshowedup.

Quiteuncharacteris tically,hemadeascorching one‐hourspeech—attheexpress

directionofMao,hesaid.Hedeclaredthatourapproachwasunacceptable.The

communiquéhadtosetforthfundamentaldifferences;otherwisethewording

wouldhavean“untruthfulappearance.”Ourdraftimpliedthatpeacewasanend

initself;theChinesebelievedthatstrugglewasmoreimportantthanpeaceorat

leastthatpeacecouldgrowonlyoutofstruggle.Ourspretendedtoillusory

agreements;theChinesewerenotafraidtofacetherealityofdifferences.In

addition,wewouldhavetorenounceourTaiwanties.Ourpresentdraftwasthe

sortofbanalitytheSovietswouldsignbutneithermeannorobserve.



Mynormalapproachtonegotiationswastoconducttheminabantering

tonetoputmyoppositenumberatease,toavoidturningeveryissueintoatest

ofwill,andtoemphasizetheturntowardfirmnesswhenalinehadtobedrawn.I

thereforerepliedinanunusuallyhardmanner.IsaidthatIrespectedChou’s

convictions,butproclamationsofinfallibledoctrinewereoutofplaceina

communiqué.TheChinesewouldnotrespectusifwestartedournew

relationshipbybetrayingouroldfriends;wewouldnotrenounceourTaiwanties.

Problemsbetweenushadtobesolvedbyhistory,notforce.Wewereherenot

simplytorecordphilosophicaldisagreement buttochartapath.Wecouldnot

justcataloguedisagreements;therehadtobesomethrustintothefuture.Idid

notthinkweshouldriskdraftingacommuniquéfromscratchduringthe

President’svisit;butthechoicewasupto Chou.



Followingabreak,Chousaidthathewouldsubmitaproposeddraftlaterin

theday.Afterstuffinguswithroastduck,Chousubmittedhispaperinthe

evening.Itwasunprecedentedindesign.ItstatedtheChinesepositionona

wholehostofissuesinextremelyuncom promisingterms.Itleftblankpagesfor

ourposition,whichwasassumedtobecontrary.ItwasintransigentonTaiwan.At

firstIwastakenaback.ToendaPresidentialvisitwithacatalogueof

disagreementswasextraordinary;itwasalso,Ithought,unacceptable

internationallyanddomestically.ButasIreflectedfurtherIbegantoseethatthe

verynoveltyoftheapproachmightresolveourperplexities.Astatementof

differenceswouldreassurealliesandfriendsthattheirinterestshadbeen

defended;ifwecoulddevelopsomecommonpositions,thesewouldthenstand

outastheauthenticconvictionsofprincipledleaders.Wewouldavoidthe

exegesisofplatitudes,whichisthebaneofthestandardcommuniqué.Andwe

wouldnotruntheriskofcontradictionandillwillafterthecommuniquéwas

issuedandeachsideexplainedthemeaningofvaguelanguagetoitsown

advantage.



AfterabriefbreakItoldChouthatIwouldaccepthisbasicapproach.The

communiquécouldcontainanextendedstatementofdifferences;wewould

supplytheAmericanpositionforthoseareaslater.However,thelanguageofthe

disagreementshadtobecompatiblewiththeoccasion.SomeoftheChinese

formulationswerestatedinrigidandunacceptablefashion;thePresidentcould

notputhisnametoa documentrepeatingstandar dpropagandapositionsthat

werepublishedeverydayinthenewspapers.Wewouldnotacceptlanguagethat

tendedtoputusontrialortohumiliateanAmericanPresidentevenifitwas

clearlylabeledastheChinesepointofview.Also,therewouldhavetobesome

commonpositions,orelsethewholejourneywouldbeseenasanexercisein

futility.Ipromisedtosubmitacounterdraftthenex tmorning.



Itturnedintoacontestofphysicalendurance.Lordredraftedthe

communiquéwhileIgotthreehoursofsleep.ThenhewenttobedandI

reworkedhisdraftfortheremainderofthenight.Weconcentratedonsoftening

thelanguageoftheChinesepositions,writingthesectionsexpressingthe

Americanposition,anddevelopingsomecommonpointsofagreement.We

deliberatelychosemoderateformulationsforourpointofviewbecausethis

wouldbeourfirsto pportunitytopresentAmericanvaluesandpurposestothe

Chinesepublic.Wesoughtatoneoffirmnesswithoutbelligerence. 



OurcounterdraftofOctober25ushere dinasessionthatlast edthewhole

day,interruptedoccasionallyforseveralhourswhiletheChinesetranslatedour

text,studiedit,and,nodoubt,clearedtheirpositionwithMao. AsIhavealready

mentioned,Chouagreedtodeletethemostegregioussentencesfromthe

statementoftheChineseposition.Weoutlinedthekeyjointpositions,especially

theparagraphconcerningbothcountries’oppositiontohegemony.(Thoughthis

laterbecameahallowedChineseword,itactuallywasintroducedfirstbyus.)



Taiwan,asexpected,providedthemostdifficultissue.Weneededa

formulaacknowledgingtheunityofChina,whichwastheonepointonwhich

TaipeiandPekingagreed,withoutsupportingtheclaimofeither.Ifinallyput

forwardtheAmericanpositiononTaiwanasfollows:“TheUnitedStates

acknowledgesthatallChineseoneithersideoftheTaiwanstraitsmaintainthere

isbutoneChina.TheUnitedStatesGovernmentdoesnotchallengethat

position.”IdonotthinkanythingI didorsaidimpressedChouasmuchasthis

ambiguousformulawithwhichbot hsideswereabletolivefornearlyadecade.

(InfairnessImustsaythatIadapteditfromaStateDepartmentplanning

documentfornegot iations,whichabortedinthefifties.)TheChineseaskedfora

recessat11:35p.m.At4:45a.m.WeweregivenanewChinesedraftandby5:30

a.m.Choureturned.HeandI refinedthetextforseveralmorehoursuntilat8:10

a.m.,concludinganearlynonstopsessionoftwenty‐fourhours,wehadagreedon

themainoutlineofwhatcametobeknownastheShanghaiCommuniqué.Itwas

anunusualdocument.Itsexplicit,sometimesbrutaldisagreementsgaveemphasis

tothecommonpositions—theconcernwithhegemony(aeuphemismforSoviet

expansionism),thecommitmenttonorm alizerelations.Theparagraphonthe

Americandefenserelatio nshipto Taiwanwasleftopen,butthetwosides’

positionswerewithinrangeofeachotherandtheagreedportionsnee ded

beefingup.IwasconfidentthatwecouldfindasolutionwhenIreturnedwith

NixoninFebruary.



Wehadscheduled ourdeparturefor9:00a.m.Choutookmeto thedoorof

theguesthouseandspoketomeforthefirsttimeinEnglish:“Comebacksoon

forthejoyoftalking.”



<<Contents>>



****



TheUnitedNations



Yplanewasbarelyairborneforhomewhentheteletypechatteredoutthe

newsthatintheUnitedNationswehadlostthebattletopreserveTaiwan’s

seat.Choutoldmelaterthathehadlear nedofthevotejustbeforemydeparture

butthathedidnotwanttoembarrassmebybeingthefirsttoinformme.

Ironically,onmyvisitIdidnothavetheimpressionthattheChineseexpectedto

prevailinthatsession.Chouhadreferredtothesubjectonlyonceandbriefly,

pointingoutthatTaiwan’sstatuswasmoreimportanttoPekingthanmembership

intheUnitedNations;Pekingwouldnottakeitsseatunderourdual‐

representationformula.



Thevotehadcomeaweekearlierthanexpectedmainlybecausefewer

nationsthanexpectedchosetospeak.AdvocatesoftheAlbanianresolution

decidedtoforceavoteonMondaynight,October25.ValianteffortsbyourUN

Ambassador,GeorgeBush,failedtostallit.At9:47p.m.Thetabulatinglights

abovethepodiumintheGeneralAssemblyflashedthetotals:TheImportant

Questionresolution,whichwehadstillexpectedtowin,lostby59votesagainst,

55infavor,and15abstentions.EveryNATOallyexceptLuxembourg,Portugal,

andGreecevoted“no”orabstained.TheNewYorkTimesreportedwhat

followed:



TheTanzanians,whowereamongthefloormanagersforPeking,jumpedfromtheir

seatsinthefrontrowanddidalittlevictorydance.TheAlgerians,fellowcosponsors,embraced

oneanother.TheAlbanianssedatelyshookhands.Othersstoodup,applauded,cheered.

Rhythmicclappingbeatagainstthewalls.ThevoteontheAlbanianresolution90minuteslater

wasanticlimactic.Theresultwas76‐35,with17abstentions(andwithoutasingleNATOallyon

theAmericanside).



ThustheAlbanianresolutionpassedoverwhelmingly.TheUSresolutionfor

dualrepresentationandtheSecurityCouncilseatforPeking,whichour

governmenthadlaboredsohardtoshapeandpromote,nevercametoavote.

Theessenceofthematterwasthatfriendlynationschangedtheirposition.Many

ofthemhadlongbeentornbetweentheirdesirenottoantagonizeusandtheir

self‐interestingainingthefavorofpowerfulChina.AslongastheUnitedStates

wasinapostureofhostilitytoPeking,theyfearedthatvotingfortheadmissionof

thePeople’sRepublicwouldincursomepenaltyfromus.Oncewemoved

dramaticallytowardRapprochementwithChina,theynolongerfearedthatwe

wouldimposesuchapenalty.Thusallofstate’seffortstoframea“reasonable

compromise”resolutionweretonoavail.ByvotingforPeking’sadmission,not

onlycouldothercountriesservetheirgeopoliticalinterest;supportingPekingwas

alsoawaytosatisfytheirdomesticleft,allthemoreusefulifitseemedtobein

defianceoftheUnitedStates.



ReactioninCongresswasbitterandsurprisinglywidespread.Therewas

strongsentimenttoretaliateagainsttheUNandagainstcountriesthathadvoted

toexpelTaiwan.SecretaryRogersatanewsconferenceonTuesday,October26,

welcomedPekingintotheUNbutsaidthattheUnitedStates“deeplyregrets”the

expulsionofTaiwan;itwasa“mostunfortunate”precedent“whichwillhave

manyadverseeffectsinthefuture.”HesaidtheAdministrationwouldnot

supportareductionoffundsfortheUNinretaliation,buttopreempt

Congressionalassaultshedidsuggestthat“therehastobesomehardthinkingby

membernations”aboutwhethertheUNwas“livingbeyonditsresources.”The

nextday,Wednesday,October27,RonZieglerissuedamuchsharperstatement.

Speakingfromnoteshehadtakenduringanearly‐morningconversationwith

Nixon,ZieglerdeclaredthatthePresidentwasoutragedbythe“spectacle”of

“cheering,handclappinganddancing”afterthevote;Nixonfoundthisa“shocking

demonstration”of“undisguisedglee”and“personalanimosity.”Carefulnotto

condemnthevoteitself,Zieglerwarnedthattheoffensiveandundignified

behavior“couldveryseriouslyimpairsupportfortheUnitedNationsinthe

countryandintheCongress”and“evenaffectforeignaidallocations,” sincesome

ofthedelegatesthatexhibitedsuchjubilationwerefromcountriestowhichthe

UnitedStateshadbeen“quitegenerous.”Ziegler’sstatementfannedthehysteria

onCapitolHill.Theworstoffenders,amazinglyenough,weretheliberalswhohad

alwaysadvocatedPeking’sadmissiontotheUN.Conservativeamendmentstocut

backtheUScontributiontotheUNwereheadedoffinthesenate.Butagroupof

liberalSenators,inasurpriselate‐eveningvoteonFriday,October29,inafitof

Vietnam‐erahysteriakilledtheAdministration’sentire$3.3billionforeignaid

authorizationbill,afterloadingitwithantiwaramendmentsandprovisionsto

replacebilateralwithmultilateralaid.Nixonjustifiablycondemnedthis“highly

irresponsibleactionwhichundoestwenty‐fiveyearsofconstructivebipartisan

foreignpolicyandproducesunacceptableriskstothenationalsecurityofthe

UnitedStates.”



Meanwhile,IreturnedlateonOctober26toaWhiteHouse alreadyina

stateofagitation.Someinthegovernmentsawanopportunitytoweakenmy

positionbyleakingcommentsblamingtheoutcomeoftheChinavoteonmyvisit

toPeking.AndthePresidentwasbecomingrestiveatthepublicityIwasreceiving.

HehadselectedmefortheJulysecretmissioninpartbecauseIhadlessvisibility

thananyothercandidateandwasmoreeasilycontrolled.ButNixon,likeany

otherPresident,hadnointentionofbeingupstagedbyhisownAssistant.Icould

seearippleofWashington’scurrentswhenIwasaskedtostopoverinAlaskaon

thewaybacksothatIwouldnotarrivehomeonthedayoftheUNvote(thishad

beenrequestedbyRogers)—avirtualacknowledgmentthatmytripwas

responsiblefortheoutcome.AndIwasdisembarkedatadistantcornerof

AndrewsAirforceBase,inaccessibletonewsmenandphotographers.



Itwasnotaheroichomecoming,especiallyafterthestrenuousexertionsof

theprecedingdays.Butitma denolastingdifference.Onecannotmakeita

politicalissuethata diplomaticsetbackwhichhadbeenrecognizedasinevitable

occurredalittleearlierthanexpected.AndwhileNixoncouldbepeevishand

petty,hewasnotabout toriskanimminenttriumphorakeyelementofhis

foreignpolicy.



PlanningforhistriptoPekingacceleratedandsoonsubmergedother

considerations.PekingtookitsseatintheUnitedNations,notwithout aprivate

jokebetweenChouandme.ForChina’sDeputyForeignMinisterCh’iaoKuan‐hua

showedthattheChineseneverwasteanything;heincludedinhismaidenspeech

intheUnitedNationsalmostallthepolem icsIhaddeletedfromthedraftofthe

communiqué.I,inturn,instructedGeorgeBushtoexpressregretthatPekinghad

decidedtobeginparticipationinthisworldbodyby“firingtheseemptycannons

ofrhetoric.”Chouunderstood,thoughsomeeditorialwritersfounditharshand

otherswonderedatthestrangemetaphor.



OnNovember15IproposedinourParischannelthatthenewChinese

missiontotheUNbeauthorizedtodealwithitsAmericancounterpartsinan

emergency.TheChineseagreedonNovember20.Thislinkwassoonto beneeded

duringtheIndia‐Pakistanwar.Infact,ImetsecretlyinNewYorkaboutadozen

timesoverthenextyearandahalfwithHuangHua,whowasquicklymovedfrom

OttawatobecomeChina’sUNAmbassador.Thesemeetings,togetherwithmy

annualtripstoChina,becametheprincipalchannelofcommunicationsuntilthe

creationoftheliaisonOfficesinWashingtonandPekinginmid‐1973.



OverThanksgiving,flyingtoSanClementewithmeonAirforc eOne,my

nine‐year‐oldsonDavidwasteasedbytheWhiteHousepress,whoaskedifhe

knewthestill‐secretdateofNixon’sChinatrip.DavidhadheardMarch

mentionedontheradio,andsaidso.Thepressgleefullyreportedthisasascoop;

fordaysafterwardIwaspursuedbynewsmenwho wantedtoknowifIwasgoing

to“muzzle”mysonforhisleakingofstatesecrets.ButthereportsofDavid’s

“leaking”wereasincorrectastheradioreportthathehadheardinthefirstplace.

OnNovember29theWhiteHouseannouncedtheagreeddateofNixon’svisitto

Peking—luckilyformyson,itturnedouttobeFebruary21,1972.



TheyearthathadstartedwithellipticalandtentativemessagestoPeking

throughthirdpartieshadendedwithface‐to‐facetalksandseveraldirect

channels.AfterhavinghadnocommunicationwithChineseleadersfortwenty

years,wehadconductedoneofthemostcomprehensivereviewsofinternational

relationsinmydiplo maticexperience.AnAmericanPresidentwastovisitthe

Chinesecapital;acommuniquéwasalreadyessentiallyagreedupon.Inonegiant

stepwehadtransformedourdiplomacy.Wehadbroughtnewflexibilitytoour

foreignpolicy.Wehadcapturedtheinitiativeandalsotheimaginationofourown

people.Wehadmuchfarthe rtogo,ofcourse.Butwehadmadeanewdeparture

andtraveledsomedistancedowntheroad.



<<Contents>>



****



XX



US—SovietRelations:

BreakthroughonTwoFronts



twasinabriefinterludeofcalmthatAndreiGromykocametoWashingtonin

October1970,andRichardNixonhadhisfirstmeetingasPresidentwitha

Sovietleader.ThecrisesofCienfuegosandJordanwerejustbehindus.The

SALTtalkswerescheduledtoresumeonNovember2,theBerlintalkswere

reconvening,anddespiteSovietdeceitinCubaandtheMiddleEast,Nixon’snear

obsessionwithaMoscowsummitmeetinghadnotabated.InGromykowewere

meetingamastercraftsman,aForeignMinisterwhohadtodesignpolicyfora

Politburowithoutsignificantexperienceoftheoutsideworldandwhohadto

conducttheinternationalaffairsofasuperpowerfromabureaucraticjunglein

whichhisonlypowerbasewashisowncompetence.Hewasasurvivor.Hehad

livedthroughtheStalinperiod,theMolotoveraattheforeignMinistry,and

Khrushchev’sroller‐coasterdiplomacy.Hewasonlythirty‐fourwhenhewasmade

AmbassadortotheUnitedStatesin1943.HehadbeenForeignMinistersince

1957,whenhereplacedDmitriShepilovafteraspellasAmbassadortotheUnited

Nationsfrom1946to1949.HehadmetintheOvalOfficewithFranklinRoosevelt

andeveryAmericanPresidentsince.



Thepriceofsurviva lincludedbeingthebuttofthecrudejokesofwhoever

wasthetopSovietleader;KhrushchevandBrezhnevwerealikeinthisrespect.

KhrushchevonceboastedtoaforeignvisitorthatifGromykowereaskedtositon

ablockoficewithhispantsdownhewoulddosounquestioninglyuntilordered

toleaveit.Brezhnev’shumor,thoughlessbrutal,madethesamepoint.Neither

leftanydoubtthatintheirviewoneofGromyko’sgreatassetswasliteral

adherencetoordersasapliantinstrumentofarbitrarypower.



Gromyko’sfacewouldcreaseinsmileswhenhewasthebuttofthisheavy‐

handedjoshing.Onlyhiseyesremainedwaryandslightlyme lancholy,likethose

ofthebeaglewhohasenduredtheinexplicablefoiblesofhismasteryetbent