Powell J. Encyclopedia Of North American Immigration

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state under a series of Israelite kings, around 1000

. The

region was successively conquered by the Assyrians, Baby-

lonians, Persians, Greeks, and finally Romans. During the

first and second centuries

., most of Palestine’s Jews were

driven out of the region by the Romans, leading to their

dispersal throughout Europe and the Mediterranean world.

Most of the inhabitants of Palestine were converted to Islam

during the early phases of the Muslim expansion in the sev-

enth century, and in 638, a mosque was built on the site of

the old Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, a bone of contention

thereafter among Jews, Christians, and Muslims. In the

16th century, Palestine was conquered by the Ottoman

Empire, divided, and ruled from Constantinople. Around

1880, some European Jews, driven by continued persecu-

tion and convinced that they would never be accepted in

European societies, began to purchase land in Palestine,

reestablishing a presence in the ancient homeland and

marginalizing the poorer Palestinian inhabitants. In 1920,

administration of the region was handed over to Great

Britain as part of the post–World War I mandate system,

territories to self-government. About that time, the popula-

tion of Palestine was about 82 percent Muslim, 10 percent

Christian, and 8 percent Jewish. By 1948, when a state of

Israel was carved out of the Palestinian mandate, less than

two-thirds of the total population of Palestine was Muslim.

As a result, the predominantly Palestinian areas were

granted Arab control, and the principally Jewish regions

became the new state of Israel. Palestinian and other Arab

leaders refused to accept the partition and immediately

attacked Israel. During the 1948 war, 750,000 Palestinian

Arabs sought what they believed would be temporary refuge

in Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria. After the Six-Day

War of 1967, hundreds of thousands of refugees fled from

the Jordanian West Bank and the Egyptian Gaza Strip, rais-

ing the total number of refugees to about 1.4 million.

Although a concerted effort to create the conditions for

peace in the Middle East began in the 1970s, centering on

Israeli withdrawal from Palestinian territories in return for

Arab recognition of Israel’s right to exist in peace, only lim-

ited progress had been made by 2004. During the 1980s

and 1990s, militant nationalists largely controlled Pales-

tinian politics, appealing to anti-Western Arab sentiment in

support of their cause.

The actual number of Palestinians in the United States

and Canada is much higher than official numbers suggest.

Many researchers put the number in the United States at

200,000 and in Canada at more than 30,000. Because Pales-

tinians were technically stateless, they often held passports

from Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, or Jordan. A significant num-

ber of immigrants listed in immigration documents as

Lebanese and Jordanian were almost certainly Palestinian.

A large number would also have entered from Kuwait, Saudi

Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Oman, and

Qatar, where some 3 million worked prior to the 1991 Per-

sian Gulf War.

Although most Arab immigrants prior to the J

OHNSON

EED

of 1924 were Lebanese Christians, there was a

small number of Muslim Palestinians as well. It is known that

some from the West Bank town of Ramallah established

small businesses in the Midwest around 1900. With passage

of the M

ARRAN

-W

ALTER

in 1952, relaxed quotas

enabled a small number to immigrate during the 1950s and

early 1960s. Most of these were well educated academics and

professionals.

The greatest period of Palestinian immigration to the

United States came between the Six-Day War in 1967 and

1990, after which numbers began to decline. Although offi-

cial figures indicate that more than 11,000 Palestinians

immigrated during the 1980s, some scholars have suggested

that the number may be seven or eight times that high,

driven by the rising tide of violence within Israel.

During the 1980s a small number of Palestinians

entered Canada, mostly on humanitarian grounds or as

refugees. With changes in immigration law in the late 1980s

that allowed prospective business investors to enter Canada,

a substantial number of relatively prosperous Palestinians

were enticed to emigrate from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the

United Arab Emirates, and other Middle Eastern countries

where they had been living. Most Palestinian immigrants to

Canada are well educated; as a group, they have the highest

literacy rate in the Arab world and one of the highest rates of

doctorates per capita of any nationality in the world. Of the

5,455 Palestinian immigrants officially indicated by the

Canadian census of 2001, 3,610 came after 1981. Many

community experts suggest that there were more than

30,000 Palestinians in Canada in the 1990s.

Further Reading

Abraham, S. Y., and N. Abraham, eds. The Arab World and Arab Amer-

icans: Understanding a N

eglected Minority. Detroit: Center for

Urban S

tudies, Wayne State University, 1981.

Abu-Laban, Baha, and Faith Zeadey, eds. Arabs in America: Myths

and R

ealities. W

ilmette, Ill.: Association of Arab-American Uni-

versity G

raduates, 1975.

Abu-Laban, Baha, and M. Ibrahim Alladin, eds. Beyond the Gulf War:

uslims, A

rabs, and the West. Edmonton, Canada: MRF Pub-

lishers, 1991.

Cainkar

, L. “P

alestinian Women in the U.S.: Who Are They and What

Kind of Lives Do They Lead?” In Images and Reality: Palestinian

Women under Occupation and in the Diaspora. Washington D.C.:

Institute for Arab

Women’s Studies, 1990.

Elkholy, Abdo. The Arab Muslims in the United States. New Haven,

Conn.: College and U

niv

ersity Press, 1966.

McCarus, Ernest, ed. The Development of Arab-American Identity. Ann

Arbor: U

niv

ersity of Michigan Press, 1994.

Naff, Alixa. Becoming American: The Early Arab American Experience.

Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985.

224 PALESTINIAN IMMIGRATION

Orfalea, Gregory. Before the Flames: A Quest for the History of Arab

Americans. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988.

Pastore, John Orlando (1907–2000) politician

The first Italian-American governor and U.S. senator, John

Pastore represented the post–World War II shift in public

opinion that enabled politicians of southern and eastern

European descent to play a more prominent role in

statewide and national politics. He was best known for his

promotion of more wholesome television programming and

the concept of family viewing times.

Pastore was born in 1907 to Italian immigrants in Prov-

idence, Rhode Island, where their family of seven lived in a

four-room tenement apartment. He attended public schools

there and graduated from Northeastern University Law

School in 1931. A gifted speaker, he rose rapidly in the

Democratic Party, serving in the Rhode Island house of rep-

resentatives (1935–37), as assistant attorney general of

Rhode Island (1937–38, 1940–44), and as lieutenant gov-

ernor (1944–45). He succeeded as governor (1945–50)

when J. Howard McGrath resigned. He was twice more

elected governor before winning a U.S. Senate seat

(1950–76). Pastore was reelected to the Senate in 1952,

1958, 1964, and 1970. He served as cochairman of the Joint

Committee on Atomic Energy and chairman of a commit-

tee on TV regulation.

Further Reading

Morgenthau, Ruth S. Pride without Prejudice: The Life of John O. Pas-

tore. P

rovidence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1989

Pastore, John O. The Story of Communications from B

eacon Light to

Telstar. New York: Macfadden-Bartell, 1964.

P.C. 695 (Canada) (1931)

In 1931, the Canadian cabinet passed Order-in-Council

P.C. 695 prohibiting almost all immigration in order to

meet the growing challenges of economic depression. As a

result, more than two-thirds of immigrants to Canada dur-

ing the 1930s were from Britain or northern Europe. The

measure remained the basis of Canadian immigration policy

until 1946.

A previous measure in 1930 had limited admission to

those with agricultural capital or with family already in the

country. By the provisions of P.C. 695 the restrictive policy

was broadened, limiting immigration to Americans and

Britons from white settlement colonies, including Britain,

Ireland, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Australia, and South

Africa, who had a sufficient monetary reserve; agricultural

capitalists; those guaranteed employment in mining or tim-

bering; and dependents of males already residing in Canada.

The policy was steadfastly maintained throughout the Great

Depression, despite growing humanitarian pressures as con-

ditions worsened in Europe. The most controversial results

of the policy came after the economy began to improve in

1937, when the government rejected a special appeal on

behalf of German Jews and moved slowly on the Sudeten

refugee question. In 1946, the Canadian Cabinet, passed

P.C. 2071 amending P.C. 695 by permitting immigration

of refugees with close relative in Canada. Even with this

exception, immigration was tightly controlled, excluding

almost all Jews.

Further Reading

Abella, Irving, and Harold Troper. None Is Too Many: Canada and the

Jews of E

urope, 1933–1948. Toronto: Lester and Orpen Dennys,

1982

ery, Donald. Reluctant Host: Canada’s Response to Immigrant Work-

ers, 1896–1994. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1995.

Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. Canada,

1900–1945. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987.

Constantine, S

tephen, ed. E

migrants and Empire: British Settlement in

e Dominions between the Wars. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester

Univ

ersity Press, 1990.

Glassford, Larry A. Reaction and Reform: The Politics of the Conserva-

tiv

e P

arty under R. B. Bennett, 1927–1938. Toronto: University

of T

oronto Press, 1992.

Kelley, Ninette, and Michael Trebilcock. The Making of the Mosaic: A

istor

y of Canadian Immigration Policy. Toronto: University of

Tor

onto Press, 1998.

Penn,William (1644–1718) colonist, religious leader

The founder of the P

ENNSYLVANIA COLONY

, William Penn

brought religious tolerance and cultural diversity to the

English colonies in America. His colony became a haven

for religious dissenters and open to all the peoples of Europe.

Penn was born in London into an aristocratic family

with connections to the royal family. His father was an

English admiral who amassed a considerable estate in Ire-

land. Given the best private education, Penn was neverthe-

less expelled from Oxford University in 1662 for holding

unorthodox views. While managing the family estates in

Ireland, he joined the Society of Friends (Quakers), which

was a great disappointment to his family. In 1668, he pub-

lished Truth Exalted, the first of 150 books, pamphlets,

and tracts he wrote, many of which attested to his religious

faith. H

e trav

eled extensively in Britain and Europe,

preaching and promoting the doctrines of the Quakers and

would be a significant historical figure for this alone. Penn

violated numerous laws prohibiting non-Anglican preach-

ing, meeting, and publishing and spent about two years in

prison. In politics, he had friends among the supporters of

Charles II (r. 1660–85) and James II (r. 1685–88) and

among the Whigs who opposed the Stuart monarchy. For

several years after 1691, he went into hiding, having been

accused of treason.

PENN,WILLIAM 225

Penn is best remembered, however, for the establishment

of the Pennsylvania colony in America. In 1682, he became a

proprietor of the West Jersey colony (see N

ERSEY

COLONY

) but soon abandoned it in favor of territory granted

to his father by Charles II perhaps in payment of a debt and

perhaps to rid himself of troubling Quakers. With the charter,

Penn was given the right to both land and government, and

he set out to provide a refuge for Quakers who were being per-

secuted in Europe. As a proprietor, he advertised widely

throughout Europe in pamphlets such as A Brief Account of

the P

ovince of Pennsylvania (1681) and A Further Account of

the Pr

ovince of Pennsylvania and Its Improvements (1685), hop-

ing to attract settlers. T

ranslated into many languages, these

tracts enticed settlers. While the colony itself was a success and

became a model of the religious toleration that Penn so deeply

supported, it provided Penn as proprietor with little income.

Caught in the midst of English high politics and proprietary

disputes, Penn traveled to America only twice (1682, 1699),

staying about two years each time. He also proposed one of

the earliest plans for the union of the American colonies,

advocating a Congress with representatives from each colony.

Upon returning to England in 1701, he found his finances in

chaos and was briefly imprisoned. He died in 1718, enjoying

little of the success of his famous colony.

Further Reading

Dunn, Mary M. William Penn: Politics and Conscience. Princeton,

N.J.: Princeton U

niversity Press, 1987.

Dunn, Richard, and Mary Dunn, eds. The World of William Penn.

Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.

eiter, Mary K. William Penn. London: Longmans, 2000.

Pear

e, Catherine Owens. William Penn: A Biography. Philadelphia: J.

P. Lippincott, 1956.

enn, William. The Papers of William Penn. 5 vols. Eds. Mary Maples

unn, Richar

d S. Dunn, et al. Philadelphia: University of Penn-

sylvania Press, 1981–87.

226 PENN,WILLIAM

This engraving by John Hall, published by John Boydell in 1775, is captioned “William Penn’s treaty with the Indians, when he

founded the Province of Pennsylvania in North America, 1681.” Penn was unique among early colonial founders in his regard for

the rights of Native Americans, and he lived in general peace with the local Delaware Indians.

(Library of Congress, Prints &

Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-2583])

Soderlund, Jean R., and Richard S. Dunn, eds. William Penn and the

Founding of Pennsylvania, 1681–1684. Reissue ed. Philadelphia:

Univ

ersity of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.

“Symposium on William Penn.” Pr

oceedings of the American Philo-

sophical Society 127 (1983): 291–338.

Pennsylvania colony

Frustrated with the proprietary politics in the N

ERSEY

COLONY

ILLIAM

ENN

founded Pennsylvania in 1681.

ation, it became the most ethnically diverse of the thirteen

colonies and a haven for persecuted Quakers and other

Christian dissenters.

Penn had been a proprietor of the West Jersey colony

in the 1670s and had begun to encourage Quakers to settle

in the Delaware River Valley at that time. As early as 1677,

he sold Pennsylvania lands to German Rhinelanders, who

finally arrived in 1783. It is still unclear exactly why Charles

II granted Penn the generous charter for the lands beyond

the Delaware River. It may have been because of a debt to

Penn’s father or because he wanted to rid England of the

unsettling Quaker population. In 1682, Penn published his

Frame of Government, a document that proved unworkable

but that established the principles of liber

ty of conscience,

freedom fr

om persecution, and due process of law. In the

same year, he purchased the Three Lower Counties (future

ELAWARE COLONY

) from James, Duke of York, in order

to guarantee access to the sea. Penn advertised widely in

England, Ireland, and Germany, lauding the rich soil of

Pennsylvania and the colony’s high degree of personal free-

dom. In 1685 alone, 8,000 immigrants arrived, most from

the British Isles. Within a few years, however, Penn could

boast that the people of Pennsylvania were “a collection of

divers nations in Europe,” including “French, Dutch, Ger-

mans, Swedes, Danes, Finns, Scotch, Irish, and English.” By

1760, there were 18 German communities, most in western

Pennsylvania, and Germans accounted for more than one-

third of the entire population of the colony. Most were

Lutherans or members of Reformed churches, though there

were substantial numbers of Moravians, Mennonites (see

ENNONITE IMMIGRATION

), Amish (see A

MISH IMMIGRA

TION

), Dunkers, and Schwenkfelders. German farmers

prospered, and most kept to themselves, sparking fears

among the English of a dangerous element within their

community. Diversity and toleration together produced an

unruly political process, with the Quaker-dominated urban

areas—especially P

HILADELPHIA

ENNSYLVANIA

—fre-

quently at odds with the country, especially the Three Lower

Counties, which were inhabited principally by Dutch,

Swede, and Finn settlers who had little connection with

Penn. In 1701, Penn’s Charter of Liberties granted political

control to a unicameral (one-house) assembly, free from pro-

prietary influence. By 1725, most of the 25,000 Quakers

who had migrated to the Delaware Valley lived in Pennsyl-

vania. After 1760, German and Scots-Irish settlers rapidly

filled the trans-Appalachian west, far from Quaker influence

and English control. By 1790, about 65 percent of Pennsyl-

vania’s population was non-English.

Further Reading

Bronner, Edwin B. William Penn’s Holy Experiment: The Founding of

Pennsylv

ania, 1681–1701. New York: Columbia University Press,

1962.

llick, J

oseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. New York: Scrib-

ner’

s, 1976.

Klees, Frederic. The Pennsylvania Dutch. New York: Macmillan, 1950.

ers, Albert Cook, ed. Narratives of Early Pennsylvania. New York:

Charles Scribner’

s Sons, 1912.

Nash, Gary B. Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1681–1726. Prince-

ton, N.J.: Princeton U

niv

ersity Press, 1968.

Tien, Anita. “‘To Enjoy Their Customs’: The Cultural Adaptation of

Dutch and German Families in the Middle Colonies,

1660–1832.” Ph.D. diss., University of California–Berkeley,

1990.

Peruvian immigration

Significant Peruvian immigration to North America began

in the 1960s and reflects the unusually diverse ethnic her-

itage of South America’s third largest country. According to

the U.S. census of 2000 and the Canadian census of 2001,

233,926 Americans and 17,945 Canadians claimed Peru-

vian descent. The largest Peruvian concentration in the

United States is in the New York metropolitan area, partic-

ularly in Paterson, New Jersey, and Queens, New York.

Ontario and Quebec both have significant Peruvian-Cana-

dian populations.

Peru occupies 493,600 square miles on the Pacific coast

of South America. Ecuador and Colombia are on Peru’s

northern border, Brazil and Bolivia on its eastern border,

and Chile on its southern border. In 2002, the population

was estimated at 27,483,864. The people are ethnically

divided among Amerindians (Quechua, 47 percent;

Aymara, 5 percent), mestizos (32 percent), and Europeans

(12 percent). There is a small but economically and politi-

cally prominent Japanese minority (0.5 percent). Almost 90

percent of Peruvians are Roman Catholic. Peru was domi-

nated by the Inca Empire between the 13th and 16th cen-

turies before Francisco Pizarro conquered it for the Spanish

in 1533. Spain controlled Peru, spreading Spanish learning

and culture, until 1824 when Peru finally gained its inde-

pendence under the leadership of Simón Bolívar. During

the 19th and 20th centuries, border disputes with Bolivia,

Colombia, Chile, and Ecuador led to a series of wars. Peru’s

export economy was devastated by the Great Depression of

the 1930s, which led to the rise of the American Popular

Revolutionary Alliance and an ongoing period of political

PERUVIAN IMMIGRATION 227

instability, including a long period of military rule

(1968–80). The legislature was dissolved by President

Alberto Fujimori in 1992 as the government sought effec-

tive measures against two rebel movements, the Maoist

Shining Path and the indigenous Tupac Amaru Revolu-

tionary Movement. In 2000, opposition to his antidemo-

cratic methods and political scandal rocked Fujimori’s

government, forcing him to flee to Japan. In the first demo-

cratic elections following the scandals, Alejandro Toledo

became the first president of Quechua ancestry to be

elected in Peru.

The first Peruvians may have come to the United States

during the 1848 C

ALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH

and a handful

came throughout the 19th century, though no community

was established. It is difficult to trace exact numbers, how-

ever, as South Americans were counted collectively until

1932. During World War II (1941–45), 1,800 Peruvian

Americans of Japanese descent were interned with Japanese

Americans, and some were eventually exchanged for Ameri-

can prisoners of war. Several hundred of these Peruvians

remained in the United States and were, in 1990, partially

compensated for their internment. Upper- and middle-class

Peruvians were the first to flee the country’s political insta-

bility after World War II. From the mid–1980s, poorer

Peruvians began to immigrate. Collectively they demon-

strated an unusually strong sense of national identity after

migration. Many estimates suggest that the actual number

of Peruvians in the United States in 2000 was well over

400,000, an increasingly large number of them students

seeking political and economic stability. In 2000, the I

MMI

GRATION AND

ATURALIZATION

ERVICE

estimated that

61,000 Peruvians were unauthorized residents. Between

1992 and 2002, annual average legal immigration to the

United States was a little more than 10,000.

Peruvian immigration to Canada began with several

small groups of mainly young men in the late 1960s. Most

were Peruvians of European descent, professionally trained

or skilled workers seeking economic opportunities as the

Canadian economy grew. At first, their numbers were

small—about 400 settled in Ontario, for instance, between

1957 and 1971. During the 1970s, however, immigration

dramatically increased, with close to 10,000 Peruvians enter-

ing as landed immigrants between 1974 and 1990. Of the

17,120 Peruvian immigrants in Canada in 2001, fewer than

1,000 came before 1971; 14,020 (82 percent) arrived

between 1981 and 2001.

Further Reading

Altamirano, Teófilo

. Éxodo: Peruanos en el exterior. Lima, Peru: Ponti-

ficia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1992.

———. Los que se fueron: Peruanos en los Estados Unidos. Lima, Peru:

Pontificia U

niv

ersidad Católica de Perú, 1990.

Mata, Fernando. Immigrants from the Hispanic World in Canada.

Ottawa: 1988.

McK

ee, D. L. “Some Specifics on the Brain Drain from the Andean

Region.” International Migration 21, no. 4 (1983): 488–99.

onaghan, J

ay. Chile, Peru, and the California Gold Rush of 1849.

Ber

keley: University of California Press, 1973.

tavans, Ilan. “Two Peruvians: How a Novelist and a Terrorist Came

to Represent Peru’s Divided Soul.” Utne Reader (July/August

1994), pp

. 96–102.

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportun-

ity Reconciliation Act

See W

ELFARE

EFORM

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Philadelphia became in the 1680s W

ILLIAM

ENN

’s “greene

countrie towne,” the capital city of the ethnically diverse

ENNSYLVANIA COLONY

. It also served as the capital of the

new United States of America between 1790 and 1800.

During the colonial period, more immigrants disembarked

at Philadelphia than at all other British colonial ports in

North America combined. Although it gradually lost promi-

nence as a center for immigration, large numbers of Euro-

pean migrants eventually settled in Philadelphia. In 2000,

the population of the greater metropolitan area (including

Wilmington, Delaware, and Atlantic City, New Jersey) was

6,188,463, and the largest non-British immigrant groups

included Irish (1,242,075), German (1,036,116), Italian

(886,102), and Polish (343,465). Puerto Ricans (207,855)

formed the largest Hispanic group in the city.

The site of Philadelphia was first organized into a town

under the Swedes in the 1640s and, after considerable fight-

ing, was finally taken by the English in 1674. It became a

prime destination for Quaker and German immigrants seek-

ing to take advantage of Penn’s guarantees of religious liberty

and bountiful land. Most of these settlers moved into the

countryside in the southeastern corner of the colony.

Philadelphia itself provided many economic opportunities,

however. There were many Quaker merchants and busi-

nessmen who took advantage of the fine natural harbor at

the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. By

1710, it had become the largest city in the thirteen

colonies—with a population of about 35,000 on the eve of

the American Revolution (1775–83)—and remained so

until the 1780s, when it was overtaken by New York City

(see N

ORK

, N

ORK

). Philadelphia was at the cen-

ter of the Revolution, hosting the First and Second Conti-

nental Congresses (1774–75), being occupied by the British

(1777–78), and serving as the meeting place for Congress

for the remainder of the war (1778–83). The Constitutional

Convention was also held in Philadelphia (1787).

The rapid development of canals, railroads, and other

industrial projects attracted large numbers of immigrants

during the 19th century, though Philadelphia was no longer

a major port of disembarkation. Irish and German immi-

228 PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND WORK OPPORTUNITY RECONCILIATION ACT

grants predominated before the Civil War (1861–65), find-

ing many opportunities in Philadelphia’s rapidly expanding

economy. By the 1840s, the Irish constituted 10 percent of

the population. As in most northeastern cities,

NATIVISM

was strong, with considerable prejudice displayed toward the

Irish in particular, who often were willing to work for con-

siderably lower wages than their American-born counter-

parts. This sparked an ongoing series of anti-Irish riots

between May and July of 1844.

Like most eastern seaboard cities, Philadelphia

attracted thousands of Jews, Italians, Poles, and Slavs after

1880. As the port of New York became busier with the

massive influx of the

NEW IMMIGRATION

, Philadelphia

processed an increasing number of immigrants at its Wash-

ington Avenue immigration station, located on the

Delaware River in the heart of the wharf district. In 1909,

Congress appropriated funds for a new station. Ultimately,

the project was abandoned as World War I (1914–18) and

restrictive immigration legislation between 1917 and 1924

effectively stemmed the immigrant tide. The city’s popu-

lation grew rapidly, from 850,000 in 1880 to 1.8 million

in 1920. The major source of increase after World War II

(1939–45), however, was African Americans moving from

the south in search of economic opportunities. By 1970,

more than one-third of Philadelphia proper was black.

After 1965, Philadelphia declined dramatically as a pre-

ferred location for immigrant settlement. As European

immigration declined and Hispanic (see H

ISPANIC AND

RELATED TERMS

) and Asian immigration increased, Los

Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco in California;

Miami, Florida; Houston, Texas; and Washington, D.C.,

all overtook Philadelphia. Among large metropolitan areas

in 2000, Philadelphia had the lowest percentage of foreign-

born population at 5.1 percent.

Further Reading

Bodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban

America. Bloomington: Indiana Univ

ersity P

ress, 1985.

Clarke, D. The Irish in Philadelphia: Ten Generations of Urban Experi-

ence. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973.

Feldberg, Michael J. The Philadelphia Riots of 1844: A Study of E

thnic

Conflict. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975.

Hershberg,

Theodore, et al. Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family and

Group Experience in the N

ineteenth Century. New York: Oxford

niversity Press, 1981.

Laurie, Bruce. Working People of Philadelphia, 1800–1850. Philadel-

phia: Temple U

niv

ersity Press, 1980.

Stolarik, M. Mark, ed. Forgotten Doors: The Other Ports of Entry to the

nited S

tates. Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1988.

Warner, S

am Bass, Jr. The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods

of I

ts Growth. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Pr

ess,

1968.

Philippine immigration See F

ILIPINO IMMIGRATION

picture brides (mail-order brides)

This informal term refers to women who married single

immigrant men they had never met but with whom they

had ex

changed photographs, usually through family inter-

mediaries. Securing picture brides was most common

among Japanese and Korean laborers in Hawaii during the

early 20th century and was viewed as an extension of the tra-

ditional custom of arranged marriages. By the start of the

20th century, thousands of single laborers from Japan and

Korea had become established in the United States, but with

few single women from their home countries, family life was

impossible. The costs of a return trip to Asia to marry was

prohibitively expensive, so they used the picture-bride sys-

tem instead. European immigrants sometimes sent for mail-

order brides, as they were usually known in Europe, though

with fewer immigration restrictions, there was less gender

imbalance among Europeans. A variation of this practice

developed in the 1990s, as women seeking escape from

poverty and gender limitations in countries of Southeast

Asia and eastern Europe advertised themselves through more

than 200 matchmaking agencies for marriage to men from

economically advanced, western nations.

The vast majority of Asian immigrants arriving in

North America were single males, most hoping to earn

enough money to return to their homeland and enjoy a bet-

ter life. More often than not, they stayed, building a new life

in America. With a rising tide of anti-Asian sentiment in the

United States and Canada, however, and increasingly restric-

tive regulations in measures such as the C

HINESE

XCLU

SION

(1882), the C

HINESE

MMIGRATION

(1885),

and the G

ENTLEMEN

’

GREEMENT

(1907), it became clear

that the gender imbalance would not be redressed. Workers

often turned to families or other matchmakers to help them

arrange marriages in their home countries. The practice

became especially prevalent after 1907, when a loophole in

the Gentlemen’s Agreement provided that wives of Japanese

immigrants were excluded from the new restrictions. As

Japan formalized its protectorate of Korea after 1907, the

labor immigration of Koreans that had begun in 1903 was

curtailed, though families and Japanese marriage agents did

arrange for about 1,100 Korean pictures brides to enter the

United States before the J

OHNSON

-R

EED

halted the

practice in 1924. Most Japanese and Korean picture brides

immigrated to Hawaii, marrying men much older than

themselves. They were often shocked to see husbands who

looked nothing like their pictures, though most chose to stay

rather than return to their previous circumstances.

With economic malaise characteristic of many former

Soviet territories, by the late 1990s it is estimated that more

than 150,000 women from these regions were using mail-

order bride agencies to advertise themselves in an attempt

to escape their economic and social circumstances. West-

ern men who sought out wives in this way tended to be

well-educated and generally prosperous but, based on

PICTURE BRIDES 229

recent evidence, felt threatened by the effects of greater gen-

der equity in western countries. The exact number of these

arranged marriages is uncertain but probably averaged

around 5,000 annually throughout the 1990s, less than 6

percent of the total number of spouses entering the United

States and Canada each year. During the 1990s and early

2000s, the great majority of women advertising in North

America as potential brides came either from Southeast Asia

or the countries of the former Soviet Union.

Although the divorce rate in mail-order marriages

appears to be lower than in the population generally, the sys-

tem is open to abuse by both spouses. A significant number

of women clearly used the policy provisions of both the

United States and Canada, permitting the naturalization of

wives regardless of birth country, in order to bypass ordinary

immigration restrictions. Before 1986, foreign spouses in

the United States generally were granted permanent resi-

dency as a matter of course. Concern over fraudulent mar-

riages led to passage of I

MMIGRATION

ARRIAGE

RAUD

AMENDMENTS

(1986, 1990), requiring a two-year wait for

conditional resident status for the alien spouse, after which

both parties were required to petition the Immigration and

Naturalization Service and to undergo personal interviews

to determine that the marriage was legitimate. On the other

hand, the rate of spousal abuse by men seeking more sub-

missive wives seems to be higher than in the general popu-

lation. In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed a bill providing

for a conditional residency waiver if the spouse could

demonstrate that battering or extreme cruelty had led to

the dissolution of a good-faith marriage. A series of high-

profile murders in Washington State involving mail-order

brides led to passage of Washington State Senate Bill 6412

(2002), requiring matchmaking businesses to provide a state

background check and marital history upon request to

prospective brides in their native language. Senator Jeanne

Kohl-Welles, a Democrat and author of the bill, led discus-

sions with members of the U.S. Congress during 2002

about the possibility of passing a similar measure at the fed-

eral level.

Further Reading

Anderson, Michell J. “License to Abuse: The Impact of Conditional

Status on F

emale Immigrants.” Yale Law Journal 102, no. 6:

1,401–1,430.

habha, J

acqueline, Francesca Klug, and Sue Shutter. Worlds Apart:

Women and I

mmigration and Nationality Law. London: Pluto

ess, 1985.

Collier, Linda, J. “Marriage Market.” In Encyclopedia of American

mmigr

ation, Vol. 1. Ed. James Ciment. Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe

Refer

ence, 2001.

Glodava, Mila, and Richard Onizuka. Mail Order Brides: Women for

ale. F

ort Collins, Colo.: Alaken, 1994.

Kaprielian-Churchill, I

sabel. “Armenian Refugee Women: The Picture

Brides, 1920–1930.” Journal of American Ethnic History 12, no.

3 (1981): 3–29.

Konvitz, M

ilton R. T

he A

lien and the Asiatic in American Law. I

thaca,

N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1946.

Makabe, Tomoko. Picture Brides: Japanese Women in Canada. Trans.

Kathleen C. M

ken. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of

Ontario, 1995.

Narayan, Uma. “Male-Order Brides: Immigrant Women, Domestic

Violence, and Immigration Law.” Hypatia 10, no

. 1 (Winter

1995): 104–120.

Scholes, R

obert J. “The ‘Mail-Order Bride’ Industry and Its Impact on

U.S. Immigration.” Immigr

ation and Naturalization Service

eports and Studies. Available online. URL: http://www.ins.gov/

graphics/aboutins/repsstudies/M

obappa.htm. Updated Novem-

ber 14, 2001.

Washington State Senate Democratic Caucus. “Locke Signs Landmark

Measure Protecting Mail-Order Spouses.” Available online.

URL: http://www.sdc.wa.gov/Releases/Kohl-Welles/mailorder-

signing.htm. Updated June 14, 2002.

Pilgrims and Puritans

The Pilgrims and the Puritans were two theologically

related Christian groups that developed within the Church

of England in the 16th century. Though relatively small in

number, Pilgrim and Puritan settlers of the 1620s and

1630s established standards for religious conduct, moral-

ity, and hard work that came to represent the English

immigrant ideal.

The Pilgrims and the Puritans were the spiritual chil-

dren of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, believers

in the holiness of God, the sinfulness of humankind, and

the ultimate authority of the Bible in matters of faith. King

Henry VIII had rejected the authority of the pope and the

Roman Catholic Church in 1535, forming the Church of

England (Anglican Church) with the English monarch at

its head. The Anglican Church remained a state church,

with an official hierarchy and many ceremonial elements

derived from the Roman church. Many English Christians

sought to “purify” the Anglican Church by removing all

the old elements of Romanism, including elaborate rituals,

sumptuous priestly vestments, and questionable doctrinal

statements. By the 1560s, these Anglicans were derisively

known as Puritans. Among the Puritans, some believed

that the only means of effective reform was to remove

themselves from the Anglican Church. Because it was a

crime to worship outside the Church of England, “sepa-

ratist” congregations either had to worship secretly or leave

the country. In 1608, a small congregation of Separatists

moved from Scrooby, England, to Leyden, in the Nether-

lands, where they were granted complete freedom of wor-

ship. Fearing loss of their English identity, however, and

recognizing the lack of economic opportunity in a foreign

land, in 1620 a group of 102 settlers, mostly separatists

and known as Pilgrims, migrated to America. Blown off

course from their original destination in northern Virginia,

they established a settlement, Plymouth, at their landing

230 PILGRIMS AND PURITANS

spot in southern Massachusetts, several hundred miles

north of the location contracted for settlement while in

England. Because they were technically outside of English

jurisdiction and threatened by anarchy, family heads joined

to produce the Mayflower Compact, the first written

framework for a government in what is today the United

States. After a disastrous first winter, which saw half their

number perish, the following summer provided “all things

in good plenty,” thus leading to a day of giving thanks and

the unofficial founding of a national holiday, Thanksgiv-

ing, that would be officially established in 1863. Founded

in an area of poor soil and little economic opportunity,

the colony attracted few settlers. In 1691, Plymouth joined

with the more prosperous Massachusetts Bay colony (see

ASSACHUSETTS COLONY

), some 50 miles to the north,

which had been founded by Puritans in 1629.

OHN

INTHROP

and other Puritan leaders worked

vigorously to reform the Church of England from within.

By 1629, however, when it became clear that no meaning-

ful reforms were likely, Puritan leaders obtained a royal char-

ter for the Massachusetts Bay colony. With the curbing of

religious and political freedoms in England throughout the

1630s, the colony grew rapidly to some 16,000 by the early

1640s. Having removed themselves from the Church of

England in America, the Puritans developed an experimen-

tal form of church government known as Congregational-

ism, characterized by village church independence and

voluntary association. Puritans also settled the regions of

Connecticut (1636; see C

ONNECTICUT COLONY

) and New

Hampshire (1623; see N

AMPSHIRE COLONY

), which

were granted colonial charters of their own in 1662 and

1677, respectively.

Further Reading

Bradford, William. Of Plimmoth Plantation. Ed. Charles P. Deane.

Boston: Massachusetts H

istorical Society, 1856.

PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 231

This painting by Percy Moran shows Pilgrim fathers Myles Standish,William Bradford,William Brewster and John Carver signing

the Mayflower Compact in a cabin aboard the Mayflower, 1620.The development of self-government in the American colonies

eventually led to revolution against Great Britain, and the establishment of an independent United States of America.

(Library of

Congress, Prints & Photographs Division [LC-D419-185])

Breen, T. H. Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early

America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Gill, C

rispin. Mayflower Remembered: A History of the Plymouth Pil-

grims. Ne

w York: Taplinger Publishing, 1970.

all, David D. Puritanism in Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts. New

Yor

k: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

Kammen, Michael. Mystic Chor

ds of Memory: The Transformation of

radition in American Culture. New York: Vintage Books, 1993.

Langdon, George D. P

ilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth,

1620–1691. Ne

w Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966.

iller, Perry, and Thomas H. Johnson, eds. The Puritans. 2 vols. 2d

ed. Ne

w York: Harper and Row, 1963.

Winthrop, John. Winthrop’s Journal: “History of New England,”

1630–1649. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,1908.

Plyler v. Doe (1982)

In its 1982 ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court found that the

state of Texas had failed to support sufficiently its case for

the legitimate right of the state to deny education to illegal

immigrants. The decision stemmed from the May 1973

decision of the Texas legislature to charge public school

tuition to children illegally residing in the state. The restric-

tion of state services, patterned on a number of federal pro-

grams, was designed to “prevent undue depletion” of

“limited revenues available for education,” and explicitly to

keep the “ever-increasing flood of illegal aliens” from under-

mining the “fiscal integrity of the state’s school-financing

system.” The justices struck down the legislation by a 5-4

vote, conceding that public education was not a fundamen-

tal right, but arguing that denial of free tuition to illegal

aliens violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth

Amendment to the Constitution. Writing for the minority,

Chief Justice Warren Burger argued that “by definition, ille-

gal aliens have no right whatever to be here, and the state

may reasonably, and constitutionally, elect not to provide

them with governmental service at the expense of those who

are lawfully within the state.” The increasing tide of illegal

immigration during the 1990s led some groups to attempt

to have the public services issue reviewed by the more con-

servative Court of the 1990s. Plyler v. Doe was cited in an

injunction against California’s P

ROPOSITION

187 (1994),

which sought to deny government services to illegal aliens.

Further Reading

Karst, Kenneth. Belonging to America: Equal Citizenship and the Con-

stitution. New Haven, Conn.:

ale University Press, 1989.

Kellough, Patrick Henry, and Jean L. Kellough. Public Education and

the Children of I

llegal Aliens. Monticello, Ill.: Vance Bibliogra-

phies, 1985.

“P

lyler v

. Doe.” In Congressional Quarterly. Historic Documents of

1982. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1983.

Schuck, Peter H., and Robert M. Smith. Citizenship without Consent:

Illegal A

liens in the American Polity. New Haven, Conn.: Yale

Univ

ersity Press, 1985.

Plymouth Colony See M

ASSACHUSETTS COLONY

Polish immigration

Poles represent the largest eastern European immigrant

group in the United States and the second largest in Canada,

behind Ukrainians. According to the U.S. census of 2000

and the Canadian census of 2001, 8,977,444 Americans and

817,085 Canadians claimed Polish ancestry. Poles spread

throughout the United States, but the majority settled in the

industrial North, especially in Buffalo and New York, New

York; Chicago, Illinois; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Milwau-

kee, Wisconsin; Detroit, Michigan; and Cleveland, Ohio.

Almost half of Canada’s Poles live in Ontario, with large

concentrations in Vancouver, British Columbia; Winnipeg,

Manitoba; and Montreal, Quebec.

Poland occupies 117,400 square miles on the Baltic

Sea in east-central Europe. It is bordered by Germany on

the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia on the south,

Lithuania, Belarus, and the Ukraine on the east, and Rus-

sia on north. In 2002, the population was 38,633,912.

About 94 percent of the people are ethnic Poles and more

than 90 percent are Roman Catholic. Slavic tribes in the

area were converted to the Roman Catholic Church in the

10th century. Poland was a great power from the 14th to

the 17th centuries. Unable to create a strong monarchy, it

gradually declined in influence and was eventually parti-

tioned (1772–95) among Prussia, Russia, and Austria,

with the core of the country falling under Russian con-

trol. During the 19th century, Polish nationalism ran high,

leading to a number of failed insurrections. Overrun by the

Austro-German armies in World War I (1914–18), Poland

declared its independence on November 11, 1918, and was

recognized by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Germany

and the Soviet Union invaded Poland in September 1939,

dividing the country. During World War II (1939–45),

some 6 million Polish citizens were killed by the Nazis, half

of them Jews. With Germany’s defeat, a Polish govern-

ment-in-exile in London was recognized by the United

States, but by 1947, Poland fell under the control of its

Communist Party, subservient to the Soviet Union. From

the 1940s to 1990s, Poland figured largely in the

COLD

WAR

strategies of both the United States and the Soviet

Union. In 1980 and 1981, the trade union Solidarity grew

to a membership of more than 10 million and began to

directly confront the Communist government. By 1989,

Poland secured free elections without the interference of

the Soviet Union, thus becoming the first partner of the

Eastern bloc to break away.

Some Poles came to the United States in the 18th and

early 19th centuries, including noblemen Tadeusz

Ko´sciuszko and Casimir Pul

⁄

aski, who fought against the

British in the A

MERICAN

EVOLUTION

(1775–83). It has

been estimated that about 2,000 Poles immigrated to the

232 PLYLER V. DOE

United States between 1800 and 1860, including many

lesser nobles and members of the intelligentsia. There were

also a number of agricultural communities established in

Texas, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The first large settlement

of Poles began around 1880 and continued into the 1920s,

when the restrictive J

OHNSON

-R

EED

severely reduced

the numbers allowed to enter. Exact figures are impossible to

ascertain, as most Poles were counted as immigrants of the

states from which they came—usually Prussia, Russia, or

Austria. General estimates place the number of Polish immi-

grants between 1850 and 1914 at about 2.5 million. Until

the 1890s, the largest numbers came from Prussia (Germany

after 1871), where agricultural modernization and anti-

Catholicism drove Poles toward North America. By 1900,

perhaps half a million German Poles had immigrated. Dur-

ing the 1880s and 1890s, the downturn in international

grain prices hit Austria and Russia particularly hard. There-

after, Austrian and Russian Poles, generally less skilled and

more destitute, became the more common immigrant. Most

eventually went to work in mines, steel mills, or the meat-

packing industry. By 1914, perhaps 800,000 had come from

each country.

During the 1920s, more than 220,000 Poles immi-

grated to the United States before the Johnson-Reed Act

established Poland’s quota at fewer than 6,000 per year. By

that time, however, Poles were well established in the United

States and had already created 800 Polish Roman Catholic

parishes. Between 1945 and 1953, more than 150,000 Poles

were admitted to the United States, most as refugees or as

former Allied combatants (see W

ORLD

AND IMMI

GRATION

). By the 1970s, most had entered the American

mainstream and were moving away from the inner cities.

After Poland’s return to democracy in 1988, there was a

resurgence of immigration, with most Polish immigrants

seeking to escape from depressed economic conditions in

the former communist country. Between 1981 and 2000,

about 250,000 Poles came to the United States.

Polish immigration to Canada took roughly the same

course as that to the United States. A handful of scattered

noblemen, adventurers, and settlers arrived in Canada from

the late 18th century through the 1850s. By 1885, perhaps

3,000 Poles lived in Canada, most having emigrated from

Prussian territory. Between 1891 and 1921, the number of

Poles rose steadily to more than 53,000. Unlike those who

settled in the United States, a large percentage were agricul-

turalists, encouraged in western settlement by Minister of

the Interior C

LIFFORD

IFTON

. Between the reestablish-

ment of Polish independence in 1919 and implementation

of the restrictive P.C. 695, about 40,000 Polish immigrants

came to Canada, many diverted away from the United States

by restrictions of the Johnson-Reed Act. From the 1920s,

Toronto gradually replaced Winnipeg as the center of Pol-

ish culture in Canada. As in the United States, Canada

accepted a large number of Polish refugees in the wake of

World War II (1939–45) and the imposition of Soviet con-

trol. Between 1945 and 1956, about 64,000 Poles settled in

Canada, and the numbers thereafter declined to an average

of less than 2,000 per year until 1980. Through the politi-

cal turmoil of the 1980s, about 10,000 Poles immigrated to

Canada annually before numbers leveled off in the 1990s.

Of Canada’s 180,415 immigrants in 2001, about 70,000

came between 1981 and 1990, and 43,000 between 1991

and 2001.

Further Reading

Avery, D. H., and J. K. Fedorowicz. The Poles in Canada. Ottawa:

Canadian Historical Association, 1982.

rozek, Andrzej. Polish Americans, 1854–1939. Warsaw, Poland: Inter-

press, 1985.

uko

wczyk, John J. And My Children Did Not Know Me: A History of

Polish A

mericans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.

———, ed. Polish Americans and Their H

istor

y. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Uni-

versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1996.

Duscak, T. “The Polish Presence in North America.” Choice 32, no. 3

(1994): 399–419.

y, D. E. “Polish Immigration to America: Before and after the Fall

of the Berlin Wall.” Polish Review 40, no. 1 (1995): 73–79.

Heydenkorn, Benedykt, ed. Memoirs of Polish Immigr

ants in Canada.

Toronto: Canadian-Polish Research Institute, 1979.

Kolinski, D

ennis. “Polish Rural Settlement in America.” Polish Amer-

ican Studies 50, no. 2 (Autumn 1995): 21–55.

Makowski, William Boleslaus. History and Integration of Poles in

anada. Niagara Peninsula: Canadian Polish Congress, 1967.

Poitro

wski, T. Vengeance of the Swallo

ws: Memoir of a Polish Family’s

Ordeal under Soviet Aggression, Ukrainian Ethnic Cleansing and

Nazi Enslavement, and Their Emigration to America. Jefferson,

N.C.: McF

arland, 1995.

POLISH IMMIGRATION 233

A Polish immigrant husks corn, near Greenfield, Connecticut,

in 1941. Prior to World War II, most Poles were of the

working class and highly concentrated in the northern United

States and on the prairies of Canada.

(Photo by John Collier/U.S.

Library of Congress #LC-USF34-080865-D)