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Figure 191. Comparison of the residual stresses in some milled surfaces, obtained with articially-

induced tooth wear lands. [After: Field & Kahles, 1971]

372 Chapter 7

Altered Material Layers

So that an impression of the altered material layers

(AMLs) that can occur for a diverse range of: surface

and sub-surface topographical features; dierent met-

allurgical processes; mechanical applications and uses;

Table 13 has been constructed, to high-light their par-

ticular inuence on functional performance. In the

majority of cases given in Table 13, the inuence of

these sub-surface defects tends to be of signicance,

especially with respect to an ‘abusive regime’ produc-

ing a machined ‘white-layer’. In some instances, the ‘al-

tered material zone’ (AMZ), can aect component in-

service performance in a variety of ways. For example,

where thein-service tribological situations produce ei-

ther re-deposited, or recast layers in the surface region,

it has been known that such defects will inuence wear

and aect reliability. is oen undetected sub-surface

Table 13. The inuence of substrate features on function

Surface integrity: sub-surface features

Function:

Metallurgy Deformation Deposits Stress

UTM

rev

Aust IGA WL Plastic

defn

Burrs Cracks Tears

and

laps

Tool

frags

Redp

matl

Res

stress

Wear

          

Strength

           

Chemical

attack

       

Fatigue

          

Magnetism

 

Bearings

        

Seals

        

Friction

     

Forming

        

Bonding and

adhesion

       

Key: : strong inuence on function; : some inuence on function; : possible inuence on function

Abbreviations: U

TM: untempered martensite; OTM: over-tempered martensite; Aust rev: austenitic reversion; IGA: intergranular attack; WL:

white-layer; P

last defn: plastic deformation; Tool frags: tool fragments; Redp matl: re-deposited material; Res stress: residual stress.

[After: Griths et al., 2001]

Machinability and Surface Integrity 373

condition degrades the functional performance, due

to the fact that they are the product of hard, brittle and

unstable layers, with tensile residual stresses present.

ese factors, combined with an acute alteration to the

bulk substrate, are likely to ‘spall’ (i.e. delaminate and

break-away). Conversely, if a sub-surface feature pro-

duces severe plastic deformation, evidence has shown

in particular for the die and tool industry, that some

dies benet from increased life due to enhanced abra-

sion resistance.

From Table 13, the design engineer can see that by

simply selecting a production process without an inti-

mate knowledge of how components are to be manu-

factured will inevitably aect the subsequent part’s

in-service application. Moreover, due regard must be

given to the machined workpiece’s potential sub-sur-

face state, as this condition will inexorably lead to

problems in terms of potential impairment of its ser-

vicing needs and reliability.

Surface integrity Manipulation – Burnishing

Par t’s for Surface Improvement

Burnishing and in particular roller burnishing (Fig.

192) is a very fast production technique for improving

both the nish and dimensional accuracy of either an

internal, or external surface, by pressure rolling with-

out removal of workpiece material. Roller burnishing

is a cold-working process, that produces a ne surface

texture by the application of the planetary rotation of

hardened rolls over the previously machined bored, or

turned surface (Fig. 192c). Moreover, unlike the pri-

mary forming process of cold-rolling which normally

produces large sectional changes, roller burnishing

involves cold-working just the surface layers of the

workpiece, to improve the surface structure.

Roller burnishing tooling (Fig.192a) can be used

or minute diameter adjustment down to 25 µm, allow-

ng component dimensional accuracies of ±0.006 mm

to be obtained. e action of roller burnishing causes

plastic deformation of the workpiece’s previously ma-

chined surface. At a given depth below the burnished

surface, the material is elastically deformed and at-

tempts to spring back. is action, gives rise to com-

pressive stresses at the surface and tensile stresses in

the elastically-deformed zone. is complex stress

interaction increases the resistance of the material to

fatigue failure, because any external forces must rstly

overcome these residual stresses.

e potential for cracking that can occur due to

the interaction between the static and tensile stresses

in the metal and a corrosive medium is termed ‘stress

corrosion cracking’. During roller burnishing, these

tensile stresses are eliminated when the burnising

tool compresses the workpiece surface. Likewise, any

pits, scratches and porosities in the surface, which

might otherwise collect reactive substances and con-

taminants, are eliminated, hence, roller burnishing in-

creases the corrosion resistance of the material.

Crystalline materials typied by their metal lattices,

are never completely without aws. e atomic lattice

will always contain built-in irregularities of various

types. ese so-called atomic dislocations reduce the

strength of the material, as less force is necessary to

alter the atomic lattice. Dislocation motion of atoms

is a complex subject, which goes beyond the scope of

the present text, however, it can be said that upon the

application of an external load (i.e. burnishing tool-

ing), because the lattice is invariably not perfect, less

force is necessary to defrom the structure. Here, an at-

tempt is made to inhibit the movement of dislocations

by means of diering hardening procedures. Cold-

working increases the number of dislocations and one

would expect the material to become soer, but in fact,

the opposite eect transpires. is increased hardness

takes place, because there are so many dislocations as

a result of cold-working, that they prevent and restrict

each other’s motion, as a result the surface hardens.



is is what occurs in roller burnishing, as the material

is displaced and the net result is that it becomes both

harder and stronger – due to dislocation obstructions.

By way of a cautionary note, both Rockwell and

Brinell hardness testing methods cannot realistically

obtain surface hardnesses readings satisfactorily,

therefore it is recommended that the Knoop test (Fig.

192b) should be used, then converted with a suitable

‘hardness comparison chart’ – see the appropriate table

in Appendix 12.

is completes a brief synopsis of a discussion on

certain aspects of both machinability and surface in-

tegrity, which hopefully conveys the importance of the

machining activities and the resulting machined sur-

face condition. Considerably more space could have

been devoted to a comprehensive review of these top-

ics, but space was limited, this is the reason for a rea-

sonably comprehensive list of references – for a more

in-depth discriminating reading on these important

machining and related issues.

374 Chapter 7

Figure 192. Roller burnishing improves the metallurgical properties of the previously machined surface. [Courtesy of Sand-

vik Coromant]

Machinability and Surface Integrity 375

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Machinability and Surface Integrity 379

Cutting Fluids

‘Everything ows and nothing abides.’

HERACLITUS

(540 – 480 BC)

[An early Metaphysician from Ephesus (Asia Minor), in: On Nature]

8.1 Historical Development

of Cutting Fluids

General speaking, metalworking mass production

techniques can be traced back to the 16

century, but

it was really not until the late 18

century that engi-

neers in the industrialised countries paid close atten-

ion to increasing production, due to the vast rise in

their populations and signicant industrial growth. In

Europe at that time, two countries where important

areas of applied machining and uid research were

being pursued was: in France, where the machining

of metals was being investigated and developed into

a science – specically in terms of the eects of tool

feeding and lubrication and its aect on surface nish;

also in the mid-19

century in England, where the ef-

fects of water as a coolant to enhance tool performance

was also studied. us, as these research activities pro-

ressed, complementary advances were taking place

into the study of tool materials their heat treatment

and in particular, tool hardening techniques. As has

happened on many occasions in the past, considerable

advances took place as a result of the enormous de

ands for armament manufacturers and their produc-

ion needs during times of war, signicantly adding

advancements and renements to the: machine tools;

tooling; as well as for lubricants. As

hese research

programmes developed, it soon became clear that for

cutting uids, while water may have had the optimum

specic heat capacity of all available uids, it brought

real problems due to corrosion of the machined com

onents and to the exposed surfaces of machine tools.

Frequently, such related losses far outweighed the ben-

ts of increased production throughput and the im-

rovement in tool life that it imparted to the overall

manufacturing process. A simple solution was at hand

in the form of corrosion inhibition, via the use of:

animal oils; fatty acids; soda; which when combined

with water to form a

‘

soap’ , oered an improvement

in product protection against rusting, while eectively

retaining the overall cooling properties of water.

In particular in the North of England during the

mid-19

century, notably around Manchester and the

Hudderseld areas – where the world’s major cotton

and woollen industries were now in full production.

ese areas, had for centuries used the benets of

‘so-water’ , which unfortunately had a tendency for

the coolant solutions to generate large quantities of

foam, hence the term ‘suds’ which is sometimes used

to the present day, although this name is hardly rele

ant to modern-day cutting uids. Almost by

ccident

and as an incidental benet of these ‘soap solutions’ ,

they were found to impart improved lubricating prop

rties between the tool and the component, through a

‘machining mechanics’ and ‘chemical relationship’ that

was at the time, not fully comprehended.

In the meantime, mineral oil: which had advanced

from being simply thought of and used as just an ali

hatic additive to vegetable oil, to that of becoming

recognised as a useful lubricant, which was at the time

currently and widely available. is mineral oil was de

onstrably shown at the time, to oer improvements

to both the machined surface nish quality and en-

ancing the tool’s lubrication. At the beginning of the

century, experimental studies into topics such as

the initial studies into: boundary lubrication; lubricity;

plus its relative viscosity; for the newly-developing en-

ines in the automotive industries were being rapidly

developed. Moreover, when general manufacturing

industries started the mass production of consumer

goods, the resultant quality was of prime importance

and basic water lubrication was now no longer su

ient. By the mid-20

century, the preliminary forays

into the basic development of today’s modern-day cut-

ing uids occurred. At this juncture, it soon became

evident that it was essential to combine the properties

of several dissimilar uids to produce an early, but

‘workable’ form of cutting uid, these ‘ingredients’

were:

•

Oil – to act as a lubricant between the chip, tool

and machined workpiece,

•

Water – for cooling, to extract the heat from the

cutting process,

•

Detergent – to break down the ‘surface tension’

be-

tween the oil and water,

1 ‘Surface tension’ , this is oen generally dened as the: ‘Inter-

facial tension between two phases, one being a liquid, while the

other is a gas’. More specically, surface tension is a physical

force in the surface of the liquid that arises as a result of the

liquid’s atoms pulling their neighbours in all directions. While

atoms deep in the liquid have no net force applied to them,

conversely, surface atoms have no neighbours above them, as

a result they experience a net inward force from the bulk of

atoms below them. Hence, this net inward force is known as

its surface tension, with the greater the radius of curvature, the

higher the surface tension (i.e see Fig. 208a). Hence, a ‘droplet

of water’ sitting on a at surface – termed a ‘spherical cap’ has

382 Chapter 8