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Permeability The passage of a gas, vapor, or liquid

through a barrier without physically or chemically affect-

ing it.

PERT Program evaluation and review technique.

pH The effective acidity or alkalinity of a solution; not to

be confused with the total acidity or alkalinity. The pH

scale is where pH 7 is the neutral point (pure water).

Decreasing values below 7 indicate increasing activity,

whereas increasing values above 7 indicate increasing

acidity, while increasing values above 7 to indicate alka-

linity. One pH unit corresponds to a 10-fold difference in

acidity or alkalinity; hence, pH 4 is 10 times as acid as pH

5 and pH 3 is 10 times as acid as pH 4 and so forth. The

same relationship holds on the alkaline side of neutrality,

where pH 9 is 10 times as alkaline as pH 8, and so on.

Most meat and ﬁsh products have pH values between 6

and 7, vegetables have pH values between 5 and 7, and

fruits have pH values between 3 and 5.

Acid solutions Neutral Alkaline solutions

0123456 7 891011121314

Planned maintenance A type of maintenance in which

a company has a given period or periods of production idle

times each month in which maintenance activities can be

undertaken. In periods of heavy production demands, this

type of maintenance breaks down into simple breakdown

maintenance.

Planning The establishment of the project activities

and events, their logical relations and interrelations to

each other, and the sequence in which they are to be

accomplished.

Predictive maintenance A type of maintenance that

utilizes an array of sensors and/or monitoring equipment

to determine the status and condition of critical wear

components in machinery and systems so that proactive

procedures or replacement can be undertaken at a con-

venient time period before the failure of the component

could cause any unscheduled downtime.

Premium time An allowance to cover the premium

portion of overtime pay, that is, the cost differential

between straight time and overtime work.

Prep work time or (period) The time required to

bring inputs to the line, load and stage ready for produc-

tion. Some companies may combine change over with

clean up and prep work.

Present value The cash value today of the difference

between a project’s investment and the related return over

the project life.

Preventive maintenance A type of maintenance de-

termined by historical data and life-cycle testing to deter-

mine optimum time of part life and therefore by extension

lead to a program of part changeout prior to the antici-

pated part failure. Carried to its extreme, it can be a costly

venture to a company, and therefore most preventive

programs are tempered by budgets and other constraints.

Primary spoilage (see also Secondary spoilage) That

spoilage caused by bacterial or chemical action of product

packed within the can.

Process The succession of actions (ﬁlling, capping, la-

beling, palletizing, etc.) undertaken to make a package.

Some companies may include the making, if it is essen-

tially part of or integral to the packaging operation.

Procurement The acquisition (and directly related

matters) of equipment, material, and nonpersonnel ser-

vices (including construction) by such means as purchas-

ing, renting, leasing (including real property), or

contracting.

Procurement lead time The cumulative time from the

beginning of the procurement order cycle (order commit-

ment) until the procured item is delivered. It includes

vendor lead time, transportation, receiving, and inspec-

tion time.

Product Those items used or consumed by the custo-

mer. They are usually items made or modiﬁed by human

industry. Take shampoo as an example; the consumer uses

the shampoo and throws away its container, cap, and

labels. The product is the shampoo and the input items

are the container, cap, and labels. (The term product,asa

collective noun, can have a plural sense.)

Product amenities The extra product features that

enhance the basic product and make it easier to use or

more enjoyable. For example, a ﬁnger pump spray on a

bottle versus a pull-and-squeeze cap.

Product run cycle (PRC) The duration of time needed

to produce a given amount of quality packages based on

the designed or historical output. It is the same as the

package run cycle. The word package is more applicable

than product in most industries and is used in this

Encyclopedia.

Product speciﬁcations The written description of the

products to be manufactured.

Product stability (K value) The ability of the product

to be handled in a stable and consistent manner. A beer

bottle, for example, has all the features necessary to make

it a stable and consistent product:

. Cylindrical parallel shape

. Relatively low center of gravity

. Heavy, smooth base for stability and low friction

Relatively hard to break

. A

shape that remains

stable throughout the packa-

ging cycle

Generally, a stable product is a product that gives a

packaging line the least amount of handling problems.

This stability can be deﬁned as a value K. A more rigorous

deﬁnition of K value is left for future development. As a

packaging line increases its level of automation, the K

value becomes critical.

Product support Those activities that support the

customer in the use of a product, such as customer

1298 GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

education, information about related products, or services

and information hotlines.

Productivity The level of ability or effectiveness in

marketing, manufacturing, distributing, and servicing a

package.

Project The overall work being planned. It will have

one speciﬁc start point and one ﬁnish point in time.

Project manager The person on a project team respon-

sible for the engineering process and appropriation

management.

Psychrometer An instrument for measuring the hu-

midity (water-vapor) content of air by means of two

thermometers, one dry and one wet.

QA Acronym for quality assurance.

QCP (quick-change process) A new common phase

used to describe the techniques used to design and operate

a packaging line that is always prepared to change from

one product to another within a minute notice. This

encompasses quick changeover (QCO), clean-in-place

(CIP), eradication of all possible adjustments, matchmark

position settings for remaining adjustments, ﬂexible crew-

ing, tooling readiness, and a streamlined results-oriented

management A similar phrase is quick changeout.

Qualifying The act of setting up and administering a

training program that ensures that the people who will be

interfacing with the packaging line are given a thorough

overview of the packaging line and a detailed program on

what they need to know to complete their tasks without

hesitation or guessing. All training must address the

following questions:

Whom should be trained?

When should training be done?

What training should be done?

How should we do training?

Where should we do training?

How much is enough training?

Manuals and other self-help tools?

Performance reviews and continuing improvement?

Company standards and policy?

Quality circles Teams of employees used to diagnose

and solve quality problems relating to fulﬁlling the needs

of the customer. It also includes the use of the work team

concept for solving other problems related to productivity

improvement, safety, and so on.

Quality control A system for assuring that commercial

products meet certain standards of identity, ﬁll of con-

tainer, and quality sanitation and adequate plant

procedures.

Quality function deployment (QFD) A set of techni-

ques for determining and communicating customer needs

and translating them into product and service design

speciﬁcations and manufacturing methods.

Quality package A package that meets all design

speciﬁcations and is manufactured in compliance is ISO

9001 or ISO 9002. Take a bottle of shampoo as an example

of a quality package:

. The content must comply with internal and govern-

ment weight and/or volume regulations.

. The print documentation must be clear, readable,

accurate, and acceptable to the end customer and

comply with government regulations at point of

manufacture to point of end use.

. The container must be clearly coded and identiﬁed

using industry-standard codes such as UPC and

comply with customer and government regulations

at point of manufacture to point of end use.

. The seal on the package must be seated correctly to a

speciﬁed torque and/or form a protective seal against

leakage, spoilage, contamination, and/or tampering.

In short, a quality package is the end product envisioned

by the marketing group that will fulﬁll all the design

criteria and packaging standards, either internal, govern-

mental, or required by the customer.

Quick-change process (QCP) A new common phase

used to describe the techniques used to design and operate

a packaging line that is always prepared to change from

one product to another within a minute’s notice. This

encompasses quick changeover (QCO), clean-in-place

(CIP), eradication of all possible adjustments, matchmark

position settings for remaining adjustments, ﬂexible crew-

ing, tooling readiness, and a streamlined results-oriented

management. A similar phrase is quick changeout.

Quick changeout The total downtime between produc-

tion runs of different packages or the end of ﬁrst produc-

tion run to end of the next production run time. It

encompasses the same time-period deﬁnition as the

quick-change process involving preparation time, cleanup

time, and changeover time.

Quick

changeover (QCO) A new

common phase used

to describe the technique of effective tooling used to

change a packaging line over from one product to another

using no tools and can be done in minutes or less.

Relative humidity The ratio of actual humidity to the

maximum humidity that air can retain without precipita-

tion at a given temperature and pressure. Expressed as

percent of saturation at a speciﬁed temperature. See also

Absolute humidity.

Reliability The probability that a device or system will

not fail within a given time frame under given conditions.

Quantitatively, this is expressed as a true mathematical

probability.

Requisition A form used to transmit purchasing infor-

mation to the Buying Department regarding needs.

Reschedule The process of changing the duration and/

or dates of an existing schedule in response to externally

imposed conditions or progress.

Resource Any consumable, except time, required to

accomplish an activity.

GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 1299

Return on equity (ROE) An accounting ratio used to

evaluate the overall ﬁnancial performance of an entire

company. ROE compares the net earnings generated by a

company to the shareholders’ equity (net worth) of that

business.

Return on investment (ROI) An accounting return

measure (similar to RONA) that includes an inﬂation

adjustment to the historical accounting value of the

physical assets. ROI approximates the internal rate of

return calculated on a computer.

Return on net assets (RONA) An accounting ratio

used to evaluate the overall ﬁnancial performance of an

established business. RONA compares the net earning

generated by a business with the net book value of the

physical assets employed in that business.

Rework (Q) Components or packages produced that are

of unacceptable quality but are acceptable for reprocessing

(denoted by Q and q

). Furthermore, the product is re-

claimable and some input items are reusable. If the

product cannot be restored to an acceptable quality, then

it becomes wastage. In packaging, one could argue that

the cost of selling off seconds is greater than the value

received. Costs associated with rework are less than those

associated with wastage, because rework does not cause

large amounts of lost product, only lost time. Some costs

incurred in the rework process are input item cost(s),

overhead cost, and opportunity cost. Even assuming wa-

stage is negligible, a decrease in rework will, in turn,

lower production costs and increase output. In general,

rework is an indicator of a process out of control.

RFP Request for proposal.

RFQ Request for quotation.

Rheology Study of the deformation and ﬂow of matter.

Risk A perceived probability of failure or not achieving

the target(s) or goal(s) as originally established at the

start of the project as well as its consequences. Since we do

not live in a perfect world, no project or decision is risk

free. There are technical and political risks.

Risk, technical Risk strictly related to a new process,

machine, or component used in packaging a known pro-

duct, or a new untried product or package design. It is

logical to assume that additional money and time will be

expended in a direct relationship to the shortfalls that

occur in the ﬁrst attempt. Sometimes, management will

deem a project that is partly successful to be satisfactory

because the costs and time to correct the shortfall are not

economical. In this case, although the project is techni-

cally a failure, politically it was approved. As a guideline,

more than 70% of all projects fail to reach the original

technical targets or goals. And less than half of all projects

that have shortfalls are completely corrected. In some

cases where the consequences are death, a low probability

is of little comfort and must not be traded off. Political risk

is a perceived probability of management’s ability of not

understanding the basic technical and marketing techni-

ques and philosophies in order to make clear timely, and

proﬁtable decisions and to accept their consequences in

the marketplace. It is also related to management’s ability

to admit to their mistakes quickly, change direction and to

learn from the experience. Finally it relates to ego and

power, elements of which make up humanity and the

complexity of life. In some cases where the consequences

are death, a low probability is of little comfort and must

not be traded off.

Run speed The run speed of a machine is the instanta-

neous operating rate at some point in time. It is derived in

terms of the output rate at that time. For example, if a

machine is outputing at a rate of 300 (not necessarily

quality) containers per minute (cpm) at a given point in

time, then that is the run speed. As the time interval

increases, the output rate is always lower than the run

speed, because of stoppages, wastage, rework, and so on.

When the output approaches the run speed for any given

time period, then the line is approaching the steady-state

condition. In a perfect world, the output and the run speed

would be equal.

Run utilization The fraction of time the packaging line

is producing output at a set run speed divided by the total

time available for production. Note that changeover,

cleanup, and prep work are not included. This factor can

be considered the uptime during the producing time

period.

Runup period The time required after the package

changeout has been completed to get the given interval

actual run speed (or output rate) to exceed the 80% of

achievable run speed. The more correct term is transient

period. If the packaging process cannot move out of the

run up period quick enough, the loss in potential produc-

tion can be staggering.

Sales and use taxes Taxes imposed on vendors or

contractors and passed on to the purchaser on all applic-

able expenditures as required by state and local law.

Sanitize To reduce the microbial ﬂora in or on articles

such as food-plant equipment or eating utensils to levels

judged safe by public-health authorities.

Sanitizer A chemical agent that reduces the number of

microbial contaminants on food-contact surfaces to safe

levels from the standpoint of public-health requirements.

Sanitizing can also be done by heating.

Schedule The plan for completion of a project based on

a logical arrangement of activities, resources available,

imposed dates, or funding budgets.

Schedule capability (C

) In simple terms, the sche-

dule capability is the relative measure of how capable or

how effective the actual packaging process is in producing

the appropriate volume of needed packages within the

planned plant operational time period or schedule. The

schedule capability relates to the ratio of the scheduled

run cycle time available divided by the actual package run

cycle time used. This deﬁnition is valid only if the actual

time taken is greater than the scheduled time. If the

actual time is less than die scheduled time, the capability

is the actual package run-cycle time divided by the

scheduled run-cycle time. The schedule capability is al-

ways equal to or less than 1. The term schedule capability

is sometimes shortened to just capability.

Scheduled package run cycle (SPRC) The scheduled

package (or product) run cycle refers to the time that

1300 GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

management allots the packaging line to yield a required

quantity of quality packages. It can also be deﬁned as the

total plant asset available time based on a 24-h clock. If

this deﬁnition is used, it should be deﬁned as the asset

package run cycle (APRC). In an ideal system, the sched-

uled package run cycle and the package run cycle are

equal. Normally, the scheduled product run cycle is far

longer than the product run cycle, based on the designed

or historical output. For an optimized packaging process,

PRC is usually more than 90% of the SPRC.

Scheduling The assignment of start and ﬁnish to all

activities belonging to a project that indicate when the

activities are expected to be performed.

Secondary spoilage Consists of those cans rusted or

corroded as a result of bursting or leaking cans. May occur

during warehousing.

Series elements Those machines connected in-line that

perform unique functions so that the operation of each

element is vital to the system. For example, if a line has

one ﬁller connected to one capper, these may be repre-

sented as series elements, because the failure or jam of

either one will stop production almost immediately if no

buffers exist.

Setup This is basically the same as the changeover but

relates only to a given machine not the packaging line. It

is deﬁned as the completion of the following items:

1. The exchange of change over parts or tooling

2. The recalibration and/or adjustment of the machine

3. The preliminary test with samples

At the end of the procedure, the machine is expected to

perform the desired function to produce a quality package

at the achievable run speed.

Shelf life The length of time that a product will main-

tain market acceptability under speciﬁed conditions of

storage. Also known as merchantable life.

Simulation The modeling or effect by computer, scaled

models, or mathematics to play out a scenario or sequence

of events that would give the appearance or outcome that

approximates as close as possible the real world. A com-

puter simulation is a means of representing the behavior

of real life systems over time, using some combination of

models, initial conditions, and discrete time steps. Real-

time computer simulation is always the optimal condition.

Single minute exchange of die (SMED) As developed

by Dr. Shigeo Shingo of Japan, this is a time and motion

evaluation using industrial engineering techniques to

facilitate the quick exchange of dies as used in the auto-

motive stamping industry. There are some people who are

attempting to use this technique and other similar tech-

niques to acquire a quick change over capability for

packaging lines. Extensions of these ideas are no tools,

no time, no talent concept and quick changeover (QCO) as

well as the rapid exchange no tool components developed

by specialized companies such as Septimatech in Water-

loo, Canada and enlightened and progressive OEMs.

SKU See Stockkeeping unit.

Solvent A substance which dissolves or holds another

substance in solution such as common salt in water.

Solvents are used in some foods as carriers for ﬂavors,

colors, stabilizers, emulsiﬁers, antioxidants, and other

ingredients.

Speed factor (S

) The actual average output rate or

actual run speed of a packaging line divided by the

achievable run speed of the packaging line, for a given

package run cycle and time period. It does not include

changeover, prep time, and cleanup that are already in

utilization.

Standard practice A written description of the mini-

mum necessary to meet the intent of policy and standards.

To the extent possible, standards should describe the

‘‘what’’ and not the ‘‘how.’’

Statistical control The state of predictable stability.

Statistical process control (SPC) A statistical

method of using control charts to monitor whether a

process is in or out of control. It is a method that requires

planning teamwork, methodology of measurement, knowl-

edge of measurement techniques, and acute knowledge of

the process. In most causes, the packaging process must

be improved ﬁrst before control charts can be use

effectively.

Statistical quality control (SQC) The use of statisti-

cal techniques for process control or product and package

inspection. It also includes the use of experimental design

techniques for process improvement.

Stockkeeping unit (SKU) An industry term that de-

tails the assortment or variety of items shipped in ‘‘one’’

physical case.

Stoppage A short time occurrence that causes the

packaging line or any portion of the packaging line to

cease production of a quality package. A stoppage is made

up of frequency and duration.

Surfactant Surface-active agent.

System A collection of one or more elements (e.g.,

machines) that are combined to perform some overall

function. A packaging process (line) and a given section

of a line having more than two elements or functions are

examples of systems.

System downtime The total amount of time the packa-

ging line stopped or ceased production during the run

period. System downtime is generally less than the total

sum of all machine and conveyor downtimes, because of

buffers and idle machine factors. It is best measured after

the last operation in the packaging process, which usually

is palletizing. System downtime normally should not

include changeover, cleanup, and prep time periods. These

times should be documented separately.

System utilization In general, system utilization refers

to how effectively time is used during production. With

regard to packaging lines, utilization is the fraction of the

total package run cycle that is actually used to produce a

needed quantity of quality packages. With regard to

machines or subsystems, system utilization quantiﬁes

the fraction of productive time that remains after factor-

ing in the effects of wastage, rework, changeover, breaks,

restraints, stoppages, and so on. System utilization refers

GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 1301

to how effectively time is used during the production

period. With regard to packaging lines, system utilization

is the fraction of the total package run cycle that is

actually used to produce a needed quantity of quality

packages at a set run peed rate. In this Encyclopedia the

word utilization is used to refer to system utilization,

except with respect to machine elements. Another way is

to say the system utilization is a fraction that quantiﬁes

the amount of productive time that remains after factor-

ing in the appropriate effects of downtime over the pack-

age run cycle. Some people call this ‘‘uptime.’’

Target cost The estimated cost to accomplish the pro-

ject contract as deﬁned by the estimate design basis and

the project objectives. The target cost assumes that project

execution during design, construction, and initial startup

will meet the normal performance standards of the com-

pany. The sum of all direct and indirect costs. By deﬁni-

tion, the target cost is a tight but realistic ﬁgure that

should have an equal chance of being overspent or under-

spent. It excludes ‘‘management reserve.’’

Target date The date an activity is desired to be started

or completed, imposed, or requested by client or program

management.

Team approach Basically, this means using teamwork

to accomplish goals. Teamwork is the dedicated work of a

team or number of associated persons of different talents

and abilities acting together in a joint action or endeavor

with reference to coordination of effort and collective

efﬁciency. The team should be made up of internal and

external resources, management, operators, and mainte-

nance personnel.

Temper A measure of the ductility and hardness of steel

plate.

Thermocouple A bimetallic device used to measure

temperatures electrically.

Tolerance A speciﬁed allowance for deviations in

weighing, measuring, and so on from the standard dimen-

sions or weight.

Total quality management (TQM) ‘‘Quality’’ is made

up of conformance to speciﬁcations as well as conformance

to the customer’s expectations. Expectations are extre-

mely difﬁcult to measure, because this includes perceived

elements. Total quality management is a philosophy of

how to bring about quality. Deming and Derant agree that

quality is not the problem, it is the solution. Improving

quality entails low upfront costs while returns are extre-

mely high. Typically, in the 1980s, 25% of the workforce

was busy doing rework. It is estimated that reducing

defectives or wastage by 5% increases revenue by 25–

85%. The following are TQM milestones:

Quality is achieved by working on the process, striving

to eliminate variability, and not by reworking or

wasting products or packages.

It is the line operators and maintenance that should

control the process, not the QC department. Quality

is everyone’s job.

Instead of directions, explain intent; take advantage of

workers’ talents, do not view them as machines or

items to be replaced. Workers should be trained for

ﬂexibility. Workers should be trained to use ‘‘statis-

tical quality control’’ and other tools such as PRC,

DFA, and CCS.

When a problem arises, or a defective product is found,

it should be viewed as an opportunity to learn about

the process, not as an excuse to blame someone.

Learn from your customers by getting their ideas,

concerns, and recommendations.

Strive for evolution and innovations, not revolutions

and inventions.

Total productive maintenance (TPM) A philosophy

or management tool that view maintenance not as a

necessary evil, but a vital operation that contributes to

the productivity and proﬁtability of the company. For JIT

to work, one of the keys is to ensure the process avail-

ability to produce is maximized. A coordinated mainte-

nance program with integrates QCP, TQM, preventive

maintenance, predictive maintenance, and DFA is what

is needed to have a successful TPM program.

Throughput Throughput for a given packaging line

and product is the exact quantity of quality packages

produced in a package run cycle as required by the

customer and shipped to the customer. It is denoted by

the symbol Y. Similarly, we deﬁne the throughput for a

machine or throughput rate as the number of items (of

acceptable quality) leaving a machine in a given amount of

time. We denote this by y

for the ith machine. The word

throughput has the same deﬁnition as output.

Training Training is the same as qualifying. Training is

the act of setting up and administering a training program

that ensures the people who will be interfacing with the

packaging line are given a thorough overview of the

packaging line and a detailed program on what they

need to know to complete their tasks without hesitation

or guessing. All training should address the following

points:

1. Whom should be trained?

2. Why should training be done?

3. When should training be done?

4. What training should be done?

5. How should we do training?

6. Where should we do training?

7. How much is enough training?

8. Manuals and other self-help tools.

9. Performance reviews and continuing improvement.

10. Company standards and policy.

11. Equipment effectiveness analysis.

12. Retroﬁts, adjustments, and additions to new, mod-

iﬁed, or existing packaging lines.

13. The team approach.

Training prerequisites The skills and knowledge that

a learner should have before training starts on a new

technology.

Training qualiﬁcation A test for learners that is both

written and hands on.

1302 GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

Training resources Training experts such as teachers,

photographers, technical writers, and illustrators.

Transient period The time required after the package

changeout has been completed to get the given interval

actual run speed (or output rate) to exceed the 80% of

achievable run speed. This is sometimes called the ‘‘runup

period.’’ If the packaging process cannot move out of the

transient period quickly enough, the loss in potential

production can be staggering.

Translucent Descriptive of a material or substance

capable of transmitting some light but is not clear enough

to be seen through.

Transparent Descriptive of a material or substance

capable of a high degree of light transmission (e.g., glass).

Uptime The time a machine or process is available to

produce a quality product during the run period of the

package run cycle.

Utilization (U) The fraction of a deﬁned time period

that is actually used to produce quality packages. There

are many deﬁnitions of utilization, but there are ﬁve main

types of utilization:

1. System utilization

2. Run utilization

3. Package changeout utilization

4. Element or machine utilization

5. Asset utilization

System utilization is the fraction of the total package run

cycle that is actually used to produce a needed quantity of

quality packages at a set run speed. In this Encyclopedia

when we use the word utilization, we refer to system

utilization. Another way is to say that system utilization is

a fraction that quantiﬁes the amount of productive time

that remains after factoring in the appropriate effects of

downtime over the package run cycle. Some people call

this ‘‘uptime.’’ Run utilization is the fraction of time the

packaging line is producing output at a set run speed

divided by the total time available for production. Note

that changeover, cleanup, and prep work are not included.

This factor can be considered the uptime during the

producing time period. Package changeout utilization is

the fraction of the package run cycle time the packaging

line has available for producing output at a set run speed

after changeover, cleanup, and prep time have been

completed. Element utilization is the fraction of time a

given machine or element is actually producing output at

a set run speed divided by the total time available for

production. Note that changeover, cleanup, and prep work

are not included. This deﬁnition usually relates to ma-

chinery and/or components. Asset utilization is the frac-

tion of a 24-h-per-day clock that is actually used in

producing quality packages until the package run cycle

is completed. If the package run cycle takes exactly 3 days,

then the total asset utilization time is 24 3 = 72 h, even

though only one shift per day is being used. When

calculating performance index (PI), only the system utili-

zation is used that considers the entire package run cycle

with changeover, cleanup, prep work, and run utilization.

Run utilization is used to get an overview of the integra-

tion, control, and elements that make up the total packa-

ging line. Element utilization is used to get an overview of

a given Machine, conveyor, or equipment. It can be used as

a general guideline for acceptance of a vendor’s machine.

But for a speciﬁc speciﬁcation for acceptance of a vendor’s

machine, the disturbance frequency (DF) should be used

with the element utilization. In this Encyclopedia the

word utilization refers to system utilization.

Vacuum packaging Packaging in containers, whether

rigid or ﬂexible, from which substantially all gases have

been removed prior to ﬁnal sealing of the container.

Value analysis A systematic approach to simpliﬁcation

and standardization of products so that they provide

needed value at minimum cost. Usually applied to existing

products to reduce input counts or amount of packaging.

Value engineering A corporate engineering tool used

in meeting a sharply deﬁned objective that is capable of

measurement and control by corporate managers. Most

objectives of value engineering are often associated with

cost-reduction

programs. V

alue engineering uses the sys-

tematic job plan consisting of the following steps:

1. Stating the problem

2. Forming the hypothesis

3. Observing and experimenting

4. Interpreting data

5. Drawing conclusions or solutions

The test for value functions are

Reliability Appearance

Performance Initial costs

Quality Lead time

Weight Human factors

Packaging Productivity

Maintenance and servicing Capital investment

Variables Quantities that describe the current operat-

ing state of a machine or system. Output rate, wastage

rate, and cycle rates are examples of variables.

Verifying The act of being able to determine without

hesitation that the machine testing and training of per-

sonnel is not only thorough but also effective in the day to

day production of the packaging line without senior staff,

consultants, and/or machinery service personnel being

involved in any shape or form.

Viscometer An instrument to measure viscosity.

Viscosity Internal friction or resistance to ﬂow of a

liquid. The constant ratio of shearing stress to rate of

shear. In liquids for which this ratio is a function of stress,

the term apparent viscosity is deﬁned as this ratio.

Wastage (W) Components or packages produced that

are of unacceptable quality. The quantity of such items is

denoted by the symbol W for a system and w

for the ith

machine. This items of unacceptable quality cannot be

reused or recycled back into the system. As a general

policy, food and pharmaceutical products that fall onto the

production ﬂoor are discarded and are therefore wastage.

In other industries, wastage may be reworked. Usually,

GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 1303

employees use their discretion to decide on wastage

items, unless company policy or government regula-

tions clearly deﬁne wastage. Wastage increases manufac-

turing costs. Some basic costs relating to wastage are as

follows:

1. Initial cost for the product and/or inputs

2. Overhead cost

3. Opportunity cost

4. Disposal cost

5. Recycling cost

A decrease in wastage will, in turn, lower production costs

and increase output. In general, wastage is an indicator of

a process out of control.

Working capital The estimated cash investment in in-

ventories and accounts receivable , minus accounts payable.

1304 GLOSSARY OF PACKAGING TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

INDEX

Abrasion resistance, synthetic

papers, 913

Absorbent materials:

microwaveable packaging, 764

paper, 911

Academic consultants, 326

Accelerated aging, electrostatic

discharge packaging, 392–393

Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE),

shelf life studies, food packaging,

Acceleration rate:

fragility testing, 1214–1217

shock in packaging systems,

1107–1111

vibration, 1267–1268

Accelerometer sensitivity, vibration

analysis, 1268

Access issues, bottle and jar closures,

270–271

Accumulator head machinery,

extrusion blow molding, 142–143

Accuracy issues, ﬁlling machinery,

still liquids, 453–454

Aclar ﬁlm, properties and

applications, 466–468

Acrylic adhesives, 1–2

Acrylic-based inks, 1

Acrylic multipolymers, 820

Acrylic plastics, 1–2

PVC modiﬁers, 2

Acrylonitrile, hot-ﬁll technology,

578–579

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

(ABS) copolymer, 820

Acrylonitrile-styrene (ANS), 820

Activation-energy values,

permeability studies, polymeric

materials, 944–946

Active/electrical ionizers, static

control, 1162

Active oxygen barriers, active

packaging, 7

Active packaging, 2–8

antimicrobial packaging, 50

applications, 3–4

bioﬁlm formation, 119–120

controlled release packaging,

333–334

forms, 4–8

active oxygen barriers, 7

antimicrobial ﬁlm, 7–8

ethanol and sulfur dioxide

emitters, 5–6

ethylene absorbers, 6

odor absorption, 8

oxygen scavengers, 5

plastic-based materials, 6

sachets and inserts, 4–5

goals, 4

Hazard Analysis and Critical

Control Points guidelines,

572

historical development, 606

modiﬁed-atmosphere packaging,

790–791

multilayer ﬂexible packaging,

805–806

overview, 2–3

oxygen scavenging systems,

1000–1004

research and development, 8

Activity-based costing, packaging

economics, 388

Actuator, pressure containers,

1024–1026

Acylhomoserine lactone (AHL),

bioﬁlm formation, 116

Addition polymerization, plastic

ﬁlms, 490–491

Additives:

control systems:

corrugated box materials,

163

electrostatic discharge

packaging, 393–395

food packaging biosensors,

129–131

edible ﬁlms, 458

FDA regulations concerning,

640–643

migration from food packaging,

767–770

radiation and release, 1055

Adhesive closure system:

gabletop cartons, 241–243

top-loading cartoning machinery,

234

Adhesives:

acrylic adhesives, 1–2

applicators, 9–19

cold-glue systems, 10

equipment classiﬁcation, 10–11

hot-melt systems, 10–17

dispensing devices, 14–16

melting devices, 11–13

pumping

devices and transfer

methods

, 13–14

system selection, 17

timing and controlling devices,

16–17

maximum instantaneous

delivery rate, 18–19

packaging adhesives, 9–10

composite cans, 196–197

corrugated box materials, 162–163

current trends, 19

extrudable adhesives, 22–24

ﬁber drums, 369

hot-melt, 2

multilayer ﬂexible packaging, 803

nanomaterials, 817

nylon, 836

polymers, 998–999

pressure-sensitive, 1–2

solids/hot-melt adhesives, 21–22

solvent-based adhesives, 22

water-based systems, 19–21

natural materials, 19–20

synthetic adhesives, 20–21

Adultration regulations, 642

Advertising, regulations concerning,

645

Aerosol containers, 24–30, 1015–1026

actuator, 1023–1026

aluminum cans, 1020–1021

body/spring, 1022–1023

can-making technology, 25–27

aluminum cans, 26–27

smart packaging, 1131

tinplate cans, 25–26

The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, Third Edition,

Edited by Kit L. Yam.

1305

can-making trends, 29–30

classiﬁcation, 1016–1019

components, 1021–1023

dimensions and capacities, 1019

dip tube, 1023

glass and plastic, 1021

mounting caps, 1023

necked-in aerosol can, 28

pressure resistance, 1019–1020

propellants, 1038–1044

chemistry, 1041–1042

environmental issues, 1040–1041

historical background,

1039–1041

safety, 1042–1044

steel cans, 29–30

stems, 1021–1022

straight-wall cans, 28

valves, 1021–1022, 1024

AFNOR traceability system,

1033–1037

Aging:

electrostatic discharge packaging,

392–393

plastic foams, 523

population, medical device

packaging, 720

Airborne contamination, sterile

disposable healthcare packaging

integrity, 852

Air conveying systems, 31–35

air of vacuum design, 342–343

beverage industry applications, 33

contamination reduction, 34–35

cost-effectiveness, 33–34

design characteristics, 32–33

maintenance, 34

mechanical interfacing, 34–35

operating guidelines, 31–32

Air ejection valves, thermoplastic

injection molding, 592

Airﬂow properties, air conveying

systems, 31–33

Air ionizers, static control, 1162

Air-knife coating system, 291

Air-leak testing, 646

Air-removal systems, vacuum

packaging, 1259–1260

Air shipments, export packaging, 431,

433

Alginate, biobased materials, 111–112

Alignment parameters:

thermoplastic injection molding,

589

total quality management,

1239–1240

Aliphatic resins, plastic ﬁlms, 490

Alloys, aluminum foil, 528

Allyl isothiocyanate (AIT),

antimicrobial packaging, 56

Aluminum containers:

cans, 193–195

aerosol containers, 26–27, 29–30,

1016, 1020–1021

current development trends,

194–195

historical development, 193–194

hot-ﬁll processing, 577

pressure containers, 1016,

1020–1021

recycling, 403–406

surface coatings/linings, 27–28

closures, bottles and jars, 280

foil, 527–532

aseptic packaging, 531

chemical resistance, 528

converting operations, 528–530

embossing, 529–530

ﬂexible packaging, 530

heat resistance, 528

ionomers, 624

lamination, 529

lidding, 531–532

manufacturing process, 527–528

mechanical properties, 528

microwave ovens, 531–532

physical properties, 527

printing, 529

rigid packaging, 532

semirigid packaging, 532

tamper-evident packaging, 531

microwaveable packaging, 758–759

ovens, 531–532

pressure containers, 1016,

1020–1021

Aluminum-metal substrates, barrier

coatings, 99–103

Amorphous state, structure/property

relationships, 1168–1169

Amperometric biosensors, food

packaging, 125

Ampuls, glass ampules, 35–38

formation process, 36–38

Anhydrides, extrudable adhesives,

23–24

Animal glue, water-based adhesives,

Annealing system, machine-directed

orientation, 686

Antenna variances, radio-frequency

identiﬁcation tags, 1069–1070

Anti-counterfeiting packaging, 46–48

beverage

packaging, 1

145–1146

overt and covert systems, 46

tactics and materials, 46–48

tamper-evident features, 48

Anti-fog coating, 48–50

Antimicrobial agents (AMA):

bioﬁlm formation, 119–120

controlled release packaging,

333–334

edible coatings and ﬁlms, 460–461

nanomaterials, 816–817

Antimicrobial packaging, 50–58

active packaging barriers, 7–8

antimicrobial agents, 54–56

basic properties, 50

commercial applications, 56–58

ﬁlm matrix, 54

food migration agents, 52–53

historical background, 51

oxygen absorbing agents, 51–52

systems, 51

Antioxidants:

controlled release packaging,

333–334

lipid oxidation, 669–670

environmental factors, 669–670

free radical chain stoppers, 669

free radical production

prevention, 669

radiation and presence, 1055–1056

Apollo space missions, food

packaging, 534

Application identiﬁers, bar coding,

296

Applicator systems, bottle and jar

closures, 275

Applied ceramic labels, glass bottles,

559

Aqueous dispersions, skin packaging,

1113

Argon, modiﬁed-atmosphere

packaging, 789

Aroma barrier testing, 63–69

ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymers,

419–421

liquid permeability assessment,

67–68

permeability measurement

techniques, 948

permeation process, polymeric

materials, 938–948

chemical composition, 939–940

copermeants, 942–943

measurement methods, 948

permeability data, numerical

consistency, 946–948

permeant characteristics, 941

polymer morphology, 940–941

relative humidity effects,

943–944

temperature effects, mass-

transfer parameters, 944–946

transport process, concentration

dependence on, 941–942

permeation testing, 1210–1211

sorption methods, 68–69

1306 INDEX

vapor permeability measurement,

64–67

isostatic with dynamic

continuous ﬂow and isobaric

methods, 65–66

quasi-static and isobaric method,

static and manometric methods,

66–67

Aroma incorporation, ﬂavor release

packaging, 1136–1138

Artiﬁcial light, protective packaging

against, 656

Aseptic blow molding, 152–153

Aseptic packaging:

aluminum foil, 531

medical device packaging, 715–717

military foods, 777–782

sterile disposable healthcare

packaging integrity, 852

Asphalt laminated kraft (ALK)

materials, multiwalled bags, 90

Assessment, by consultants, 325

Atmospheric can seaming machinery,

182

Atmospheric emissions:

life cycle assessment, 653–655

plastic foams, 526

Atmospheric testing, shipping

containers, 1220–1221

Attached-lid containers, rigid plastic

boxes, 174–175

Attenuation, fragility testing,

1216–1217

Audit procedures, environmental

management systems, 412

Australia, environmental packaging

regulations, 415

Automatic data collection, product

quality and information

traceability, 1035–1037

Automatic identiﬁcation system,

product quality and information

traceability, 1035–1037

Automation systems:

automatic-bottom carton, 238

automatic case loading, 244–248

case erector/loader, 244–245

automatic product loading, top-

loading cartoning machinery,

232–233

injection molding machinery, 593

medical device packaging, 725

roll-handling systems, 1084–1085

stretch-ﬁlm wrapping machinery,

1276–1277

Bacteria, bioﬁlm formation, 115,

118–119

Bacterial cellulose, biobased

materials, 113

Bacterial inhibition, edible coatings

and ﬁlms, 460–461

Bacteriocins, antimicrobial

packaging, 55

Bag-ﬁlling operations, vertical form/

ﬁll/seal systems, 546

Bag-forming process, vertical form/

ﬁll/seal systems, 545

Bag-in-box (BIB) packaging:

dry products, 71–73

ﬁlm materials, polyester ﬁlms, 476

horizontal form/ﬁll/seal equipment,

543

liquid products, 73–77

Bagmaking machinery, 78–83

electronic controls, 83

multiwall bag systems, 78–81

plastic bag machinery, 81–83

Bags. See also Sacks and sacking

bulk packaging, 180

ﬂexible intermediate bulk

containers, 84–87

applications, 84–85

disposal and reuse, 86

ﬁlling and dispensing, 85

handling, storage and

transport, 85–86

materials, 85

testing and standards, 86–87

medical device packaging, 717

multiwall bags:

applications, 82

basic properties, 87–88

categories, 88

construction, 90

environmental issues, 82

graphics, 81–82

machinery, 78–81

open-mouth bags, 88–90

packaging equipment, 81

sizing, 90

speciﬁcations, 90–91

transportation, 82

valve bags, 90

plastic, 92–95

vacuum-bag

coffee packaging,

1265–1266

Bail

containers, rigid plastic boxes,

175

Bakery products:

modiﬁed-atmosphere packaging,

792

oxygen scavenging systems,

1003–1004

packaging, 896–897

Balanced-pressure ﬁlling systems,

still liquids packaging, 448

Balanced structures, coextrusion

processing, 309

Band sealing, 1091–1092

Banknote paper, anti-counterfeiting

applications, 47

Bar chain conveyor systems, 340–341

Bar coding, 294–297

applications, 296

data content, 295–296

industry standards, 1059–1060

one-dimensional bar codes,

1065–1066

printing systems, 296

reading and interpretation, 297

smart packaging, 608–614

summary of standards, 1067–1068

symbology, 294–295

two-dimensional bar codes, 1066

variables, 1070–1071

Barges, export packaging on, 431

Barrel cam arrangement, continuous-

thread closure capping, 218

Barrels, 97–98

Barrier materials and coatings:

background, 98–99

ceramic coated ﬁlm, 454–456

ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymers,

418–423

ﬁber drums, 369

folding carton paperboard

selection, 235

future developments, 102–103

high hydrostatic pressure

processing, 900

inorganic coatings, 100–101

machine-directed orientation,

687–690

medical device packaging, 715

modiﬁed-atmosphere packaging,

789

moisture vapor barrier, 102

multilayer ﬂexible packaging,

800–801, 804–805

nanocomposite packaging

materials, 807–811

nanotechnology and development,

814–815

oxygen barrier polymers, 101–102

permeability data, 99

polyester ﬁlms, 472–475

poly(lactic acid), 969–971

polymers, 103–109, 997–998

availability, 108

chemical structure, 108–109

composition, 108

ﬂavor/aroma/solvent barrier,

106–107

nanocomposites, 105–106

permeability data, 104–105

permeability factors, 106–108

INDEX 1307