Alex Hughes. Encyclopedia of Contemporary French Culture

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338

gave de facto recognition to the Provisional

Government of the French Republic (GPRF);

as areas were liberated, authority was vested

in commissioners of the Republic appointed

by the GPRF. On 22 October 1944, the Allies

gave de jure recognition to the Provisional

Government. Among its tasks was to re-estab-

lish order in the country by enforcing the au-

thority of the commissioners, disbanding Com-

munist paramilitaries and incorporating the

FFI into the regular army. Another task of the

GPRF was to set in train the so-called épuration

(purge). In theory, the purge was to be con-

ducted by tribunals whose task it was to avoid

summary justice by guaranteeing basic legal

rights to the accused, thereby preventing civil

strife and furthering de Gaulle’s aim of ‘rec-

onciling’ the French. However, given the cir-

cumstances of the time and the nature and

length of the Occupation, there was much en-

mity between resisters and those adjudged to

be compromised by collaboration, leading to

the so-called épuration sauvage, or the meting

out of summary justice.

The purges remain a subject surrounded by

confusion and controversy. Some of the con-

fusion arises from the fact that the term tended

to be applied not only to the execution of

collaborators during the war, but also to the

summary executions carried out during the

Liberation and the sentences handed down by

the tribunals set up for the purpose of bring-

ing collaborators to justice. The controversy

was fuelled by the surprisingly rapid re-emer-

gence of the extreme right-wing press after the

war, when various papers alluded to a figure

of 100,000 victims of summary justice during

the Liberation. This figure was exaggerated

for political reasons. That summary justice

was meted out is not disputed; moreover, sev-

eral thousand women were subjected to the

humiliation of having their heads shaved in

public (les tondues) for allegedly having had

relations with the Germans (known at the time

as ‘horizontal collaboration’), and in some

cases these women served to deflect attention

from those who might have been accused of

an ‘eleventh-hour conversion’ to resistance.

Around 9,000 people were summarily ex-

ecuted during the Liberation, of which 1,600

cases were decided by improvised tribunals.

The legal purge was based on the French

penal code, having provisions to sanction acts

of damage to national defence and external

security, and of intelligence with the enemy.

Over 300,000 cases were opened, of which

170,000 were pursued. Some 95,000 received

sentences, with 50,000 having their civic rights

suspended. As for the rest, around 25,000

prison sentences were pronounced, a further

13,000 of forced labour and 6,700 death pen-

alties, of which over half were given in absen-

tia. Of the 2,800 death sentences, de Gaulle

commuted some 73 per cent; in the end, 770

people were shot. In short, there were about

10,000 executions during the purges, of which

some 8,000–9,000 amounted to summary jus-

tice, and some 1,500 the result of a trial.

Among those executed were politicians

Pierre Laval (prime minister at Vichy), Joseph

Darnand (head of the Milice), Fernand de

Brinon (Pétain’s ambassador in Paris), jour-

nalists like André Suarez, and intellectuals

such as Robert Brasillach, editor of the pro-

Nazi paper Je suis partout. Those guilty of eco-

nomic collaboration seem to have been treated

relatively lightly, mainly because of difficul-

ties arising from legal definition; also, al-

though his firm had contributed substantially

to the Germans’ war effort, Louis Renault

could not be brought to trial since he died in

prison in October 1944.

Over the years since the Liberation, the

purges have continued to fuel political con-

troversy, and have contributed to what Henry

Rousso has called the ‘Vichy syndrome’, the

perpetuation of bitter French memories of

World War II. In the climate of the Cold War,

they also partly played a role in conferring a

veneer of plausibility on the extreme Right.

MARTYN CORNICK

Further reading

Assouline, P. (1990) L’Épuration des

Liberation and épuration

339

intellectuels Brussels: Complexe (a brief

account of what happened to those intel-

lectuals accused of ‘intelligence with the

enemy’).

Brossat, A. (1994) Les Tondues, un carnaval

moche Paris: Hachette-Pluriel (a study of

the public degradation of many women

during the Liberation).

Footitt, H. and Simmonds, J. (1988) France

1943–1945, Leicester: Leicester University

Press (history of the Liberation period

based on archival sources).

Kedward, H.R. and Wood, N. (eds) (1995)

The Liberation of France: Image and

Event, Oxford: Berg (a solid collection of

essays in English on various aspects of the

Liberation).

L’Histoire (1994) La France libérée: 600 jours

pour finir la guerre, special issue, July-August

(covers many of the important questions).

Novick, P. (1968) The Resistance Versus Vi-

chy: The Purge of Collaborators in Liber-

ated France, New York: Columbia Univer-

sity Press (remains an authoritative and

well-informed account of the purges).

Rioux, J.-P. (1987) The Fourth Republic 1944–

1958, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press (a good starting point for studying the

circumstances and effects of the Liberation).

Rousso, H. (1991) The Vichy Syndrome: His-

tory and Memory in France Since 1944,

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

(translation of Rousso’s path-breaking

book, Le Syndrome de Vichy, published in

French by Éditions du Seuil in 1987).

——(1992) ‘L’Épuration en France, une

histoire inachevée’ Vingtième siècle Janu-

ary-March (a thorough review of the sta-

tistics and historical issues).

Wieviorka, O. (1994) ‘Les Mécanismes de

l’épuration’, L’Histoire 179 (a useful sum-

mary of much recent work).

libraries

Embodying ideals of free and open access to

culture and literature, libraries have long been

central to France’s intellectual and cultural

activities, and with one in five French people

enrolled in a municipal library, they are part

of the fabric of everyday life. Their develop-

ment in all sectors is characterized by a ten-

sion between the conflicting roles of safeguard-

ing collections and promoting open access.

Municipal public libraries combine recrea-

tional and cultural functions with symbolic

notions of citizenship and democracy, a sym-

bolism focused in the revolutionary late 1960s,

when library staff saw the potential of librar-

ies to change society and culture. Some felt

that libraries, as mass disseminators of infor-

mation, could be harnessed to challenge the

hegemony of la culture lettrée (literary culture)

and instead promote popular and minority

cultures. Many librarians in deprived areas

also developed a social role, and were often at

the forefront of efforts to combat illiteracy.

In the 1980s, under the presidency of

François Mitterrand, and under Socialist ad-

ministrations committed to public cultural

projects, generous funding saw library build-

ings and borrowing rates double in number.

More recently, however, municipal libraries

are moving away from the principle of free

access, with 70 per cent charging a subscrip-

tion fee in 1996. Furthermore, decentraliza-

tion of library control to local authorities since

the 1980s has, paradoxically, threatened the

freedom of libraries, as some extremist local

politicians have imposed censorship on their

libraries, most notably in the Front National-

controlled town of Orange in 1996.

Unusually, some of France’s municipal li-

braries also hold priceless incunabula confis-

cated in the Revolution and, partly as a result

of this, French libraries have traditionally been

rather custodial, with modern notions of open

access poorly established in parts. However,

in other respects, French libraries have gained

a reputation for innovation; the médiathèque

concept has furnished models for international

emulation, including the Bibliothèque

publique d’Information in the Pompidou Cen-

tre and the Vidéothèque de Paris in Les Halles.

Elsewhere, libraries permeate every aspect

of French life, flourishing in institutions as

libraries

340

diverse as cathedrals, prisons, hospitals and

banks. They also play an important role in

exporting French culture, with over 300 librar-

ies in French cultural centres and embassies

worldwide. In the education sector, while

school libraries have developed from meagre

beginnings, university libraries have singularly

failed to keep pace with rapid postwar expan-

sion. The 1989 Miquel report into university

libraries led to some improvements, but pro-

vision remains well short of European coun-

terparts.

The Bibliothèque nationale is regarded as

one of the world’s greatest libraries, and its

significance in French cultural life was clearly

demonstrated by the passions aroused by the

new Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF),

which opened in 1996. The BNF was the last

and most Pharaonic of Mitterrand’s Grands

Projets, and was marked by his desire to wel-

come the general public into what had previ-

ously been the elitist preserve of specialized

researchers, a symbolic returning of the na-

tion’s heritage to the people, which Mitterrand

declared to be the noblest function to which

the Republic could aspire. That France should

be witnessing the opening of one of the largest

libraries in the world, at a time when the very

existence of libraries in the electronic infor-

mation age is considered anachronistic by

some, is appropriate testimony to the continu-

ing status of libraries in French cultural life.

LUCY McKEEVER

See also: architecture under Mitterrand; cul-

tural policy; electronic revolution; universities

Lindon, Jérôme

b. 1925, Paris

Publisher

As the adventurous literary director of the

Éditions de Minuit since 1948, Lindon has

been a vigorous champion of serious experi-

mental literature. He was the principal edito-

rial force behind the nouveau roman, virtu-

ally launching the new literary generation to-

gether with Alain Robbe-Grillet as literary edi-

tor. He is also responsible for the publication

of Samuel Beckett’s first works in French.

Having been a target of the OAS during the

Algerian war, he has also been militant in ar-

guing against censorship, and for the defence

of literature against the forces of the mass

market.

PATRICK FFRENCH

Further reading

Benveniste, É. (1971) Problems in General

Linguistics , Coral Gables, FL: University

of Miami Press (Benveniste’s most influen-

tial papers).

Ducrot, O. and Schaeffer, J.-M. (1995)

Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences

du langage, Paris: Éditions du Seuil (a new

and fully extended edition of their very suc-

cessful 1972 publication, Encyclopedic

Dictionary of the Sciences of Language).

Gadet, F. (1989) Saussure and Contemporary

Culture, London: Hutchinson Radius (a

reassessment of Saussure’s influence).

linguistic regulation

The continuing intervention of authorities in

the structure and status of the language is a

unique feature of French, and this extends from

individuals and pressure groups to the state

itself. The first example of such intervention,

the edicts of Francis I—which reduced the role

of Latin and culminated in the Ordonnances

de Villers-Cotterêts (1539)—struck a blow not

only against Latin but also the other vernacu-

lars, by decreeing that all legal decisions should

be pronounced, registered and delivered to the

parties in the French mother tongue and not

otherwise. Parallel with this approach, there

flourished lively debate among scholars and

writers to establish a standard written lan-

guage, as is shown by the development of dic-

tionaries and grammars of French, together

with proposals for language reform.

In the seventeenth century, Malherbe pro-

posed a purification and simplification of the

language, and Vaugelas in his influential 1647

publication Remarques sur la langue françoise

(Remarks on the French Language) attempted

to impose the usage of the court and contem-

porary writers as the norm. This tendency to

regulate language was marked by the estab-

lishment by Richelieu of the Academic

Française in 1635.

The statutes of the Academy declare that

its main function is to labour to provide sure

rules for French and to make it pure, eloquent

and capable to treat of the arts and sciences.

In addition it shall be responsible for compos-

ing a dictionary, a grammar, and works on

rhetoric and poetics. The first edition of the

Academy dictionary did not appear until

1694, and, so far, eight editions have been

published. A grammar came out in 1932.

Although the publications of the Academy

are accorded status and authority, their influ-

ence on the language of the average native

speaker is minimal. The grammar was heavily

criticized when it appeared and is completely

neglected today, but the various editions of the

dictionary do register and give acceptance to

the evolution of the language, both in lexis and

orthography. However, it must be emphasized

that the Academy dictionaries are extremely

selective, rejecting most technical, vulgar, slang

and foreign terms to concentrate on the stand-

ard literary language.

The Revolution continued the royal policy

of prioritizing French: the decree of 2 Thermidor

year II (20 July 1794) declared that no public

deed could be written other than in the French

language throughout the whole territory of the

Republic; the decree of 27 Brumaire year III (17

November 1794) required teaching in primary

schools to be conducted in French, the local

idiom being limited to an auxiliary role.

linguistic regulation

343

In the twentieth century, one can discern

three main forces in linguistic regulation: the

Academy, the Ministry of Education and the

state. Although all are genuinely concerned

about the quality and status of French, they

approach the subject in different ways and at-

tempt to deal with it by differing actions.

The Academy continues to be concerned

with standard written French, admitting modi-

fications after a period of maturation. Its in-

volvement in the spelling reform of 1990

caused it to lose prestige when, after support-

ing a limited programme of reform, it made a

U-turn, deciding that the proposals should not

be applied.

The Ministry of Education has come to

make up for the Academy’s timidity. Two de-

crees—the first signed by Georges Leygues in

1901, the second under the signature of René

Haby in 1976—proposed a list of tolérances

(permitted variations against the strict rules

of French grammarians) in the various exami-

nations under the control of the ministry. The

initiatives are interesting since they provide a

backdoor to linguistic reform. They are reveal-

ing, also, in providing check-lists of points of

special difficulty to learners of French, particu-

larly archaic and illogical features in morphol-

ogy and syntax. It is sobering to note, how-

ever, that the 1976 decree repeats several ex-

amples from its predecessor and it is generally

agreed that the proposals are not well-known

and universally applied. Indeed, the 1990 re-

form reproduced again some of the 1976 pro-

posals on the reform of diacritics.

In the 1950s, the government sponsored the

development of le français fondamental (ini-

tially, élémentaire), a scientific project to pro-

vide a restricted vocabulary and grammar for

speaking, writing and reading simple French.

The programme, under the umbrella of

UNESCO, sought to maintain French as a

world language and has had some success, in

that many courses for beginners were based

on the research results.

State concern with language has resulted in

the creation of numerous agencies—Office du

Vocabulaire Français (1957), Délégation

Générale à la Langue Française (1989), replac-

ing the Haut-Commissariat, itself a replace-

ment for the Haul Conseil de la Langue

Française—all concerned with promoting and

co-ordinating efforts to spread the use of good

French. A particular aspect of this movement

is fostered by the Haut-Conseil de la

Francophonie (1984) and the Conseil Interna-

tional de la Langue Française (1967), both

concerned with French as a world language.

The state has eventually realized the need

to support regional languages; the Deixonne

law (1951) permitted the study of regional lan-

guages in schools, which have since acquired

enhanced status in school, university and me-

dia. In the 1990s, Arabic has become partially

accepted in the French system.

The rest of state activity has been the battle

against English and franglais. In the 1970s

and 1980s, various decrees created commis-

sions to oversee the development of French

technical vocabulary and the Journal officiel

of 18 January 1973 published lists of several

hundred approved terms replacing angli-

cisms, e.g. industrie du spectacle (show busi-

ness), bouclier thermique (heat shield) and

tuyère (nozzle). These efforts culminated in

the Dictionnaire des termes officiels published

in 1994.

In 1975, the loi Bas-Lauriol made French

obligatory in the publicity and instructions for

all goods sold in France, and this was rein-

forced in 1994. There were a small number of

cases of fines being imposed for infringements.

The Conseil Constitutionnel (1994), while ac-

cepting that the state can prescribe the lan-

guage to be used in public service and by

collectivities, insisted on the individual’s rights

to use language as he/she wishes. The debate

goes on!

Jo REED

See also: anglomanie/franglais; education min-

istry; language and the French regions

Further reading

Ager, D. (1990) Sociolinguistics and Contem-

porary French, Cambridge: Cambridge

linguistic regulation

344

University Press (this reviews many aspects

of the language scene in France).

Battye, A. and Hintze, A.-M. (1992) The

French Language Today, London:

Routledge (a comprehensive review of the

contemporary idiom).

Delegation Generale a la Langue Française

(1994) Dictionnaire des termes officiels,

Paris: Direction des Journaux Officiels (a

dictionary of several thousand technical

terms with English equivalents, plus a list

of main legislative texts concerning lan-

guage policy in France, as an appendix).

Lipchitz, Jacques

b. 1891, Druskieniki, Lithuania;

d. 1973, Capri

Artist

After settling in Paris in 1909, Lipchitz became

one of the first artists to make sculpture based

on Cubist principles. His friendship with Juan

Gris may have given him the impetus to reintro-

duce humanity into his sculpture, and his

transparents of the 1920s marked a further

change in style, involving the breaking down of

volume by interwoven masses and voids. His

postwar sculpture was produced in America,

where he had fled following the German inva-

sion and Occupation of France. In New York,

his sculpture became more autobiographical and

monumental (often the result of commissions)

and more biomorphic than abstract or figura-

tive. Regarding Israel as his spiritual home,

Lipchitz chose to be buried there.

CAROL WILCOX

literary adaptation

Literary classics and modern novels frequently

provided the subject matter of French cinema

in the 1950s, while scriptwriters such as Jean

Aurenche (1904–), Pierre Bost (1901–75),

Henri Jeanson (1900–67), Roland Laudenbach

(1921–) and the Belgian Charles Spaak (1903–

75) dominated the industry. Their most popu-

lar source was the nineteenth-century canon

consisting of Hugo, Dumas, Stendhal, Flaubert,

Maupassant and Zola (but not Balzac). From

the eighteenth century, Prévost’s Manon

Lescaut (directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot

in 1949) and Laclos’s Les Liaisons dangereuses

(directed by Roger Vadim in 1959 and in Hol-

lywood—as Dangerous Liaisons—by Stephen

Frears in 1992) have proved popular, not least

because they offer major roles for women.

Among twentieth-century authors, those like

Jean Giono, Georges Bernanos and Marcel

Aymé, whose works are based on traditional

narrative and evoke an identifiable milieu or

like Colette, which turn on gentle eroticism,

have proved more popular sources of material

than the works of more experimental novel-

ists such as Céline, who has never been adapted

for the screen, or Proust who was first (very

poorly) adapted by Wajda (Swann in Love,

1984). Some individual works have proved per-

ennially adaptable. Following several silent

film versions, Hugo’s Les Misérables has been

adapted three times since the war: in 1957 for

Jean-Paul Le Chanois with Jean Gabin as Jean

Valjean; in 1982 for Robert Hossein, with Lino

Ventura; and in 1995 for Claude Lelouch with

Jean-Paul Belmondo, in a version which trans-

posed the setting to France under German oc-

cupation. Similarly, Flaubert’s Madame

Bovary, filmed before the war by Renoir, has

had a Hollywood version by Vincente Minnelli

(1949) with Jennifer Jones as Emma, and a

1991 French version, directed by Chabrol, with

Isabelle Huppert in the same role. These ex-

amples illustrate the close relationship between

the narrative genres of cinema and of post-

Revolutionary literature which flourished un-

til the Nouvelle Vague instituted a completely

different (more documentary-style) approach

to subject matter in films. More recently, liter-

ary adaptation has been used to bring about a

symbolic fusion between the auteurist tradi-

tions of the Nouvelle Vague and the narrative

practices of the tradition de qualité. Marcel

Pagnol’s legacy exemplifies this trend. Prewar,

Lipchitz, Jacques

345

his writings were adapted for other film-mak-

ers—Marius for Alexander Korda (1931),

Fanny for Marc Allégret (1932) and Topaze

for Louis Gasner (1932)—while he himself

filmed adaptations of Jean Giono (Jofroi in

1933; Regain in 1937), in whose works he

undoubtedly found a celebration of an un-

changing France that appealed to his own sense

of tradition. After the war, he adapted his own

Manon des sources (1952). But, by combining

the roles of writer, director, producer and man-

ager of his own studios, Pagnol served as a

powerful example to Claude Berri, who—as

writer/producer/director of Pagnol’s Manon

des sources in Jean de Florette and Manon des

sources (both 1986), Zola’s Germinal (1993),

and Aymé’s Uranus (1991)—has attempted to

revitalize the popular traditions of adaptation

within an auteurist framework so as to create,

or recreate, a ‘cultural heritage’.

JILL FORBES

Further reading

Brécourt-Villars, C. (1985) Écrire d’amour,

Paris: Ramsay (an anthology of French fe-

male-authored erotic texts, which contains

an introduction offering useful information

regarding the evolution of the erotico-liter-

ary tradition in France).

Pauvert, J.-J. (1994) Nouveaux (et moins

nouveaux) visages de la censure, Paris:

Belles Lettres (an historical account of cen-

sorship in France).

literary journals

The traditional value placed on the printed

word in France was heightened during the

transition from war to peace following the

August 1944 Liberation, when writers and

publishers suspected of collaborating with the

Nazis were singled out and tried with vehe-

mence. Long after the Liberation, debates sur-

rounding this postwar purge (épuration) and

a concomitant politics of writing remain a key

to the rise and fall of France’s major literary

journals and publishing houses.

A prime case in point is the Nouvelle Re-

vue française (NRF), conceived in 1908 by

André Gide and his circle to assert a high-

minded moeurs littéraires. Under the editorial

guidance of Jacques Rivière and Jean Paulhan,

the NRF became France’s preeminent literary

journal between the wars. After Paulhan re-

signed in 1940 rather than work under Ger-

man censors, the NRF’s publisher, Gaston

Gallimard, allowed the monthly to continue

under the direction of the pro-Nazi writer,

Pierre Drieu La Rochelle. In exchange, Drieu

used his influence with German officials in

Paris to keep the Éditions Gallimard operat-

ing. Gallimard avoided prison after the war,

but his monthly was forced to suspend publi-

cation and did not reappear until 1954.

The vacuum created by censure against the

NRF was filled by Les Temps modernes (TM),

whose director, Jean-Paul Sartre, had been a

rising star at Gallimard prior to 1940. Op-

posed to what he saw as the NRF’s growing

detachment from the social and political is-

sues of the 1930s, Sartre grounded Les Temps

modernes on a programme of committed lit-

erature (littérature engagée) that mobilized

prose to drive the writer through language to

disclose and correct social and political injus-

tices threatening the freedom of the individual

that the monthly sought to protect. Over the

next fifty years, dual concerns with social jus-

tice and individual freedom made TM a criti-

cal voice to be reckoned with in debates rang-

ing from independence for Vietnam and Alge-

ria, racism, nuclear testing, and a viable peace

in the Middle East to the events of May 1968,

women’s liberation, and Jewish identity.

Critique, founded in 1946 under the direc-

torship of Georges Bataille, billed itself as a

‘general review of French and foreign publi-

cations’. It featured extended reviews of new

and recent books on topics ranging from new

criticism (la nouvelle critique) and phenom-

enology to linguistics and structuralism. Un-

der Bataille and his successor, Jean Piel, con-

tributors such as Michel Foucault, Jacques

Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas, Gilles Deleuze,

René Girard and Michel Deguy made Critique

a prime forum for debate related to literary

criticism, philosophy, and the hybrid form of

theorizing and social sciences known in French

as les sciences humaines. Occasional clusters

devoted to individual writers (Nietzsche,

Roland Barthes) and topics (‘Fin-de-siècle Vi-

enna,’ ‘Anglo-American Philosophy’) likewise

enhanced multidisciplinary debate within and

outside France. The elegant Critique logo im-

print also graced a book series at Minuit

whose authors included Derrida and Deleuze.

While TM and Critique served as alterna-

tives to the interwar NRF, neither aspired to

the explicit cachet of the avant-garde that Tel

literary journals

347

quel (TQ) cultivated between 1960 and 1982

under the aegis of Philippe Sollers. As TQ

continually defined and refined its mission, it

resembled nothing so much as an avatar of

the Surrealist movement of the 1920s. To this

end, Sollers and company flaunted eclecticism

by fashioning their own set of precursors

from the Marquis de Sade, Stéphane

Mallarmé, and James Joyce to Raymond

Roussel, Antonin Artaud, Bataille and Francis

Ponge while—at moments—asserting the pri-

macy of writing (Sollers, Derrida) and the

psychoanalytic notion of subjects in process

(Julia Kristeva). The journal developed its

own book series at the Éditions du Seuil, with

contributors ranging from Barthes and

Derrida to Gérard Genette, Tzvetan Todorov,

Kristeva and Jean Ricardou.

From 1966 to 1976, Tel quel engaged in a

collective turn toward revolutionary politics

that sought (in the student uprisings of May

1968, the French Communist Party, and the

Cultural Revolution led in China by Mao Ze

Dong) various solutions to the impasse be-

tween open creativity and revolutionary poli-

tics that had plagued the first generation of

Surrealists under André Breton. By 1980,

Sollers declared the history of the European

avant-garde at an end. In retrospect, it seems

that, except for Derrida, most TQ critics failed

to account for the philosophical implications

of their positions in anything more than a nar-

row historical context. This was because—as

Herman Rapaport notes—they were preoccu-

pied instead with developing formal semiotic

methods of analysis and reinventing Marxist

Leninism (Rapaport 1994). By 1982, Tel quel

no longer existed and Sollers was editor-in-

chief of L’Infini, a journal of less militant am-

bitions than its predecessor.

Poétique (1970–) was initially an offshoot

of Tel quel that—much in the tradition of the

Russian Formalists, whose writings Todorov

had translated in 1965—devoted itself to the

theory, history and analysis of literary forms.

The same held true for the origins of Change,

founded in 1968 by a collectif permanent

headed at various moments by Jean-Pierre

Faye and Jean Paris. Other major postwar

journals include Esprit, Présence africaine,

L’Arc, Littérature, La Nouvelle Critique and

Poésie. More specialized journals in fields re-

lated to literary studies range from Cahiers

du cinéma, Annales and La Nouvelle Revue

de la psychanalyse to Communications, La

Revue des sciences humaines, Diogène, and

Le Débat.

Further reading

Assouline, P. (1984) Gaston Gallimard: un

demi-siècle d’édition française, Paris:

Balland; (1988) Gaston Gallimard: A Half-

century in Publishing, trans. H.J.Salemson,

New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Boschetti, A. (1988) The Intellectual Enter-

prise: Sartre and ‘Les Temps modernes’,

Evanston: Northwestern University Press

(essential reading).

Rapaport, H. (1994) ‘French Theory and

Criticism, 5:1945–1968’, and ‘6:1968 and

After’, in M.Groden and M.Kreiswirth

(eds) The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary

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