Darwin J. The Empire Project. The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830-1970
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655 / Conclusion
wake of world war and depression. And, amid the huge general cri-
sis that embroiled most of Eurasia after 1917, the appeal of British
‘modernity’ on which the Victorians had relied first came under siege
and then faded away. When Whitehall rolled up the map of the world
in the late 1960s, the substance of world power had already shrivelled
up, leaving only the ghost of the British world-system. It only remained
to acknowledge its passing.
NOTES
Preface and acknowledgments
1. A. Smith, The Wealth of Nations [1776] (Everyman edn, 1910),
p. 430.
2. J. A. Gallagher, The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire
(Cambridge, 1982), p. 73.
3. J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’,
Economic History Review New Series, 6, 1 (1953), pp. 1–15.
4. P. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism 1688–2000 (new
edn, 2002); J. Darwin, ‘Imperialism and the Victorians’, English
Historical Review 112, 447 (1997), p. 616.
5. See C. Bridge and K. Fedorowich (eds.), The British World:
Diaspora, Culture and Identity (2003), ‘Introduction’, for an excellent
statement of this.
Introduction
1. For an authoritative account of early usage of the term, see A.
Parchami, ‘The Pax Romana, Britannica and Americana: A
Conceptual and Historiographical Study’ (Oxford, DPhil thesis,
2006).
2. The classical account of this process is P. J. Cain and A. G.
Hopkins, British Imperialism, 2 vols. (1993). For the emphasis on the
speculative and often fraudulent dimension of the City’s foreign
657 / Notes to pages 5–15
investment, see I. R. Phimister, ‘Corners and Company-Mongering:
Nigerian Tin and the City of London’, Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History, 28 (2000), 23.
3. See S. J. Potter, News and the British World: The Emergence of an
Imperial Press System 1876–1922 (Oxford, 2003).
4. The classic account is in S. B. Saul, Studies in British Overseas
Trade (Liverpool, 1960).
5. For the ‘Black Indies’, see W. S. Jevons, The Coal Question: An
Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable
Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865).
6. Calculated by M. G. Mulhall, Dictionary of Statistics (1892),
p. 545.
7. University of Texas at Austin, Harry Ransome Center for the
Humanities, J. L. Garvin Papers: Milner to J. L. Garvin, 27 May 1917.
8. For the most influential exposition of this, see R. Robinson and
J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians (1961), esp. pp. 471–2.
9. This is the argument of A. L. Friedberg, The Weary Titan: Britain
and the Experience of Relative Decline, 1895–1905 (Princeton, 1988).
10. See J. Ferris, ‘“The Greatest Power on Earth”: Great Britain in the
1920s’; B. McKercher, ‘“Our Most Dangerous Enemy”: Great Britain
Pre-eminent in the 1930s’; and G. Martel, ‘The Meaning of Power:
Rethinking the Decline and Fall of Great Britain’, all in International
History Review, 13 (1991).
11. The grand argument of J. Gallagher, The Decline, Revival and
Fall of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1982).
12. For an example of this genre, see A. McClintock, Imperial
Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (1995).
13. B. Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and
Culture in Britain (Oxford, 2004).
14. P. J. Jupp, British Politics on the Eve of Reform (1998), p. 338.
Sales of the leading London newspapers rose from 16 million per year
in 1837 to 31.4 million in 1850. See J. White, London in the
Nineteenth Century (2007), p. 230.
658 / Notes to pages 15–28
15. For this lament, see P. A. Buckner (ed.), Canada and the British
Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series)
(Oxford, 2008), Introduction.
16. R. E. Robinson, ‘The Non-European Foundations of European
Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration’, in R. Owen and
B. Sutcliffe (eds.), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (1972).
17. Gallagher, Decline, Revival and Fall,p.75.
18. See S. Ward, Australia and the British Embrace (Melbourne,
2001).
19. For the best accounts of this period, see C. A. Bayly, Imperial
Meridian (1989); and the three Presidential Addresses by P. J.
Marshall on ‘Britain and the World in the Eighteenth Century’,
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 1998, 1999, 2000.Fora
longer perspective, see B. Simms, Three Victories and a Defeat: The
Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783 (2007).
20. B. R. Mitchell, Abstract of British Historical Statistics
(Cambridge, 1971), p. 130.
21. The closing lines of the Wealth of Nations.
Chapter 1
1. C. W. Dilke, Greater Britain (1869).
2. For Naoroji’s views, see chapter 5.
3.PP1867–8 (197)VI.789, Select Committee on Duties Performed by
the British Army in India and the Colonies: Report, Proceedings.
4. Reflected in the appointment of the Royal (Carnarvon)
Commission on Colonial Defence 1879–82. Its report (TNA, CAB
7/2–4) was left unpublished.
5.PP1837 (425) VII.1, Report of Select Committee on Aborigines in
British Settlements,p.3.
6. For Canning’s views and policy, P. J. V. Rolo, George Canning:
Three Biographical Studies (1965), pp. 223–33.
659 / Notes to pages 28–32
7. C. K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830–1841
(1951), II, p. 832: Grey to Palmerston, 23 April 1833.
8. E. D. Steele, Palmerston and Liberalism, 1855–1865 (Cambridge,
1991), p. 293.
9. Webster, Palmerston,I,p.390.
10. C. S. Parker, Sir Robert Peel, 3 vols. (2nd edn, 1899), III, p. 405:
Wellington to Peel, 22 September 1845.
11. Webster, Palmerston, II, p. 848: Palmerston to Melbourne,
26 October 1840.
12. Parker, Peel, III, p. 208: Peel to Wellington, 9 August 1845.
13. Webster, Palmerston, II, p. 842: Palmerston to Melbourne, 8 June
1835.
14. For a brilliant survey, see A. Rieber, ‘Persistent Factors in Russian
Foreign Policy’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993).
15. Webster, Palmerston, II, pp. 738–9: Palmerston to J. C.
Hobhouse, 14 February 1840.
16. The French expeditionary force was twice the size of the British.
17. Henry Clay, Speech in Defence of the American System against
the British Colonial System (Washington, 1832), p. 26. Clay had been
Secretary of State in 1825–9, and was a senator in 1831–42.
18. Ibid., p. 18.
19. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: Volume 2: Continental
America, 1800–1867 (1993), p. 155. Meinig’s is a brilliant analysis of
the geopolitical issues.
20. Henry C. Carey, The Past, the Present and the Future (1847).
Quoted in D. Ross, The Origins of American Social Science
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 46.
21. R. Bullen, Palmerston, Guizot and the Collapse of the Entente
Cordiale (1974), pp. 38–41; J. S. Galbraith, The Hudson’s Bay
Company as an Imperial Factor (Berkeley, 1957), pp. 246, 261.
660 / Notes to pages 32–5
22. Southampton University Library Palmerston Papers PP/LE/230
(consulted online), Palmerston to Sir G. C. Lewis, 26 August 1861.
10,000 soldiers were to be sent.
23. For New York, see R. G. Albion, The Rise of New York Port
(New York, 1939).
24. See S. Bruchey, Cotton and the Growth of the American Economy
1790–1860 (New York, 1967).
25. The presence of the other Western powers in East Asia, remarked
Disraeli, meant that ‘a system of political compromise has developed
itself like the balance of power in Europe’. See W. C. Costin, Great
Britain and China, 1833–1860 (Oxford, 1937), p. 228.
26. See L. Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade
(Cambridge, 1970).
27. See PP 1843 (596) XXXV.607, Correspondence and Return
relating to Military Operations in China.
28. See the Appeal on Behalf of British Subjects Residing in and
Connected with the River Plate against Any Further Violent
Intervention by the British and French Governments in the Affairs of
the Country (1846).
29.PP1849 (56) XXXII, Return of Numbers on 25 January in . . .
1829, 1835, 1840 and 1847,p.93.
30. See PP 1843 (140), Return of Numbers . . . Serving in Great
Britain, Ireland and the Colonies 1792, 1822, 1828, 1830, 1835,
1842.
31.PP1834 (570)VI,Report of Select Committee on Colonial
Military Expenditure,Q.2152 (Sir Rufane Donkin).
32. Ibid., Q. 1873 (Sir Lowry Cole).
33. J. Belich, The New Zealand Wars (Auckland, 1986), ch. 3.
34. R. Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil
1850–1914 (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 107–8; Bethell, Brazilian Slave
Trade; R. Miller, Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Century (1993), pp. 48–59.
661 / Notes to pages 36–40
35. J. Rutherford, Sir George Grey (1961), pp. 470ff.
36. Parl.Deb., Third Series, Vol. XLIX, 1391 (6 August 1839).
37. R. Cobden, England, Ireland and America (1836), p. 11.
38. J. H. Clapham, An Economic History of Modern Britain: The
Early Railway Age 1820 -1850 (Cambridge, 1939), p. 211.
39. S. D. Chapman, Merchant Enterprise in Britain from the
Industrial Revolution to the First World War (Cambridge, 1992),
p. 161.
40. N. Buck, The Development of the Organisation of
Anglo-American Trade 1800–1850 (New Haven, 1925), pp. 172–3.
41. J. Stuart and D. McK. Malcolm (eds.), The Diary of Henry
Francis Fynn (Paperback edn, Pietermaritzburg, 1986), pp. 40–1.
42. See John Langdon, ‘Three Voyages to the West Coast of Africa
1881–1884’, in B. Wood and M. Lynn (eds.), Travel, Trade and
Power in the Atlantic 1765–1884 (Cambridge, 2002).
43. Chapman, Merchant Enterprise,p.69.
44. Graham, Britain and Brazil,ch.3.
45. The classic account is M. Greenberg, British Trade and the
Opening of China 1800–1842 (Cambridge, 1951).
46. See D. G. Creighton, The Commercial Empire of the St Lawrence
(1937).
47. See PP 1862 (380) XXXIV.881, Return of Applications by
Commercial Interests for Ships of War to be Sent to Foreign Stations
for Protection of British Interests or Commerce. In the five years
(1857–62) covered, there were 102 applications.
48. C. W. Newbury, British Policy Towards West Africa: Select
Documents 1786–1874 (Oxford, 1965), p. 120: Lord Palmerston,
Minute, 22 April 1860.
49.PP1867 (178)XLIV.721, Return of Number of Vessels-of-War
Employed on Foreign and Colonial Service,p.5.
50. E. G. Wakefield, England and America (New York, 1834).
662 / Notes to pages 41–4
51. From around 10,000 chests in 1830–1 to over 80,000 by the early
1860s. See PP 1865 (94)XL.83, Return of Opium Exported to China
from Central India via Bombay and Bengal, 1830–1864.
52.PP1859 (2571) XXXIII.1, Correspondence Relative to Lord
Elgin’s Special Missions to China and Japan, 1857–59, Clarendon to
Elgin, 20 April 1857.
53. B. R. Mitchell, Abstract of British Historical Statistics
(Cambridge, 1971), p. 47.
54. C. Erickson, Leaving England,p.184.
55. W. S. Shepperson, British Emigration to North America: Projects
and Opinions in the Early Victorian Period (Oxford, 1957), p. 201.
56. P. Burns, Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company
(Auckland, 1989).
57. See Correspondence with the Secretary of State relative to New
Zealand, published in The Times, 21 April 1840.
58. The Times, 3 February 1838.
59. R. G. Wood, From Plymouth to New Plymouth (Wellington,
1959).
60. For the Kaipara, see B. Byrne, The Unknown Kaipara: Five
Aspects of its History, 1250–1875 (Auckland, 2002); W. Rayburn,
Tall Spars, Steamers and Gum: A History of the Kaipara from Early
European Settlement, 1854–1947 (Auckland, 1999).
61. Mitchell, Abstract,p.47.
62. Parl.Deb., Third Series, Vol. 121,col.956 (21 May 1852).
63. Ibid., Vol. 179, cols. 911–14 (26 May 1865). Cardwell was
Colonial Secretary.
64. E. Elbourne, ‘Religion in the British Empire’, in S. Stockwell (ed.),
The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (2008), p. 139.
65. I. Bradley, The Call to Seriousness (1976), p. 90.
66. A. Aspinall (ed.), English Historical Documents 1783–1832
(1959), p. 662: ‘Receipts of the Principal Religious Charities in
London’, The Scotsman, 21 July 1821.
663 / Notes to pages 44–7
67. E. Stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society, 3 vols.
(1899), vol. 1,p.243.
68. Stock, Church Missionary Society,vol.1,p.485.
69. C. P. Groves, The Planting of Christianity in Africa, 3 vols.
(1948–60), p. 267.
70. See M. Mackinnon (ed.), New Zealand Historical Atlas
(Auckland, 1997), Plate 36.
71. Groves, Planting of Christianity,vol.2, pp. 49, 36.
72. A. J. Broomhall, Hudson Taylor and China’s Open Century,
vol. I, Barbarians at the Gates (1981), chs. 3, 4.
73. Ibid., p. 278.
74. Broomhall, Hudson Taylor, vol. II, Over the Treaty Wall (1982),
p. 161.
75. Stock, Church Missionary Society,vol.I,p.490.
76. Bradley, Call,p.141.
77. Ibid., p. 78.
78. The Times, 15 February 1858.
79. www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk, Livingstone to Lord
Palmerston, 13 May 1859.
80. J. Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders
(1996), p. 168; for the request by the chiefs of Bonny in 1848, see J. F.
A. Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria 1841–1891 (Ibadan, 1965),
p. 56.
81. Ajayi, Missions,p.29.
82. A. C. Ross, John Phillip (1775–1851): Missions, Race and Politics
in South Africa (Aberdeen, 1986), p. 167: Phillip’s journal for 28
March 1842.
83. Ibid., pp. 141, 221.
84. See A. Porter, ‘An Overview: 1700–1914’, in N. Etherington (ed.),
Missions and Empire (Oxford, 2005), p. 51.
664 / Notes to pages 47–51
85. Memorial by Aborigine Protection Society to Lord Glenelg (the
Colonial Secretary), 3 February 1838. See ‘Early Canadiana Online’ at
www.canadiana.org.
86. H. M. Wright, New Zealand 1769–1840: Early Years of Western
Contact (Cambridge, MA, 1959), p. 109.
87. See M. Fairburn, The Ideal Society and its Enemies: The
Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society (Auckland, 1989),
Part One.
88. K. T. Hoppen, The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886
(Oxford, 1998), p. 381.
89. G. Wynn, ‘Industrialism, Entrepreneurship and Opportunity in
the New Brunswick Timber Trade’, in L. R. Fischer and E. W. Sager
(eds.), The Enterprising Canadians: Entrepreneurs and Economic
Development in Eastern Canada, 1820–1914 (St John’s, 1979), p. 12.
90. See Dictionary of Canadian Biography (online version).
91. See G. Tulchinsky, ‘The Montreal Business Community,
1837–1853’, in D. S. Macmillan (ed.), Canadian Business History:
Selected Studies 1497–1971 (Toronto, 1972), pp. 125–43.
92. See Australian Dictionary of Biography (online version) for
details.
93. See J. McAloon, ‘Resource Frontiers, Environment and Settler
Capitalism: 1769–1860’, in E. Pawson and T. Brooking (eds.),
Environmental Histories of New Zealand (Melbourne, 2002),
pp. 52–66; D. A. Hamer, ‘Wellington on the Urban Frontier’, in D. A.
Hamer and R. Nicholls (eds.), The Making of Wellington (1990),
p. 247; J. H. Millar, The Merchants Paved the Way (Wellington,
1956), pp. 37–8.
94. R.C.J.Stone,Makers of Fortune: a Colonial Business
Community and its Fall (Auckland, 1973), p. 9.
95. See M. D. N. Campbell, ‘The Evolution of Hawke’s Bay Landed
Society’ (PhD, Victoria University Wellington, 1972), pp. 57–8.
96. Graphically described in K. Sinclair, The Origins of the Maori
Wars (Wellington, 1957), pp. 58–9.