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665 / Notes to pages 52–4
97. For an excellent description of commando expansion, see P.
Delius, The Land Belongs to Us: The Pedi Polity, the Boers and the
British in the Nineteenth Century Transvaal (Johannesburg, 1983),
pp. 30–40,ch.6.
98. See J. Carruthers, ‘Friedrich Jeppe: Mapping the Transvaal c.
1850–1899’, Journal of Southern African Studies 29, 4 (2003), 959.
99. See L. Subrahmanian, ‘Banias and the British: The Role of
Indigenous Credit in . . . Imperial Expansion in Western India’,
Modern Asian Studies, 21 (1987), 473–510.
100. D. Kumar (ed.), Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. II,
c.1757–c.1970 (Cambridge, 1982), p. 916.
101. See D. Kolff, Naukat, Rajah and Sepoy (Cambridge, 1990),
pp. 180ff.
102. M. Yapp, Strategies of British India (Oxford, 1980), p. 175,for
the ‘horseshoe’.
103. Parl. Deb.,vol.120, cols. 647ff (5 April 1852).
104. Ibid., col. 651.
105. See PP 1857–8 (59), Return of Number of Cadetships Conferred
by the East India Company and the President of the Board of Control,
1840–57,p.2.
106. The Times, 6 August 1853.
107.PP1847–8 (511)IX.1, Report of Select Committee on the
Growth of Cotton in India,p.307; Speech by John Bright at the
Manchester Chamber of Commerce, 20 June 1853,inThe Times,
22 June 1853.
108. See A. J. Baster, The Imperial Banks (1929), pp. 101–3.
109. See C. A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering
and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 (Cambridge, 1996),
ch. 9.
110. For the Mutiny, see C. A. Bayly, ‘Two Colonial Revolts: The
Java War 1825–1830, and the Indian “Mutiny” of 1857–59’, in
666 / Notes to pages 55–9
C. A. Bayly and D. H. Kolff (eds.), Two Colonial Empires:
Comparative Essays on the History of India and Indonesia in the
Nineteenth Century (The Hague, 1986), pp. 111–35; S. David, The
Indian Mutiny (2002); F. Robinson, ‘The Muslims of Upper India and
the Shock of the Mutiny’, in his Islam and Muslim History in South
Asia (New Delhi, 2000), pp. 138–55.
111.PP1867 (478) VII.197, 553, Select Committee to Inquire into
the Duties of the British Army in India and the Colonies: Report,
Proceedings, Minutes of Evidence, p. 327: Minute by Lord Dalhousie,
13 September 1854.
112. Graham, Britain and the Modernization of Brazil,chs.1–3.
113. See P. Gootenburg, Between Silver and Guano: Commercial
Policy and the State in Postindependence Peru (Princeton, 1989).
114. Chapman, Merchant Enterprise, pp. 203–4.
115. C. Trocki, Singapore: Wealth, Power and the Culture of Control
(2006), pp. 14–15.
116. Trocki, Singapore,p.24.
117. Opium made up 33 per cent of Chinese imports in 1868, cotton
goods 29 per cent: F. E. Hyde, Far Eastern Trade 1860–1914 (1973),
p. 217; for legalisation, see S. T. Wang, The Margary Affair and the
Chefoo Agreement (Oxford, 1940), p. 120.
118. N. Pelcovits, The Old China Hands and the Foreign Office (New
York, 1948), pp. 35, 42.
119. Pelcovits, Old China Hands,p.42.
120.Y.P.Hao,The Commercial Revolution in Nineteenth-Century
China (1986), p. 355.
121. See PP 1877 (5), Report and Statistical Tables Relating to
Emigration and Immigration, 1876, Table XIII.
122. Dilke, Greater Britain (1869), p. vii.
123. For the debate on the motives behind Peel’s decision to repeal
the Corn Laws, see B. Hilton, ‘Peel: A Reappraisal’, Historical
Journal, 22 (1979); B. Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence
667 / Notes to pages 59–63
of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought 1785–1865
(Oxford, 1988); A. C. Howe, ‘Free Trade and the City of London
c.1820–1875’, Economic History Review, New Series, 77, 251
(1992); C. Schonhardt-Bailey, From the Corn Laws to Free Trade:
Interests, Ideas and Institutions in Historical Perspective (Cambridge,
MA, 2006).
124. From under £4 million to £58 million. Mitchell, Abstract,
pp. 333–4.
125. J. A. Froude, ‘England and Her Colonies’, Fraser’s Magazine,
January 1870,p.16.
126. Goldwin Smith, The Empire (1863).
127.PP1866 (3683) XXX, Royal Commission into the Origins,
Nature and Circumstances of the Disturbances in . . . Jamaica: Report,
p. 41.
128. R. Cobden, ‘How Wars Are Got up in India’, in Political
Writings of Richard Cobden, 2 vols. (1868), vol. 2, pp. 105ff.
129. Bodl. Mss Clarendon dep.c 85: Bowring to Clarendon, 18
January, 10 March, 9 April 1858.
130. H. T. Manning, British Colonial Government after the American
Revolution 1782–1820 (New Haven, CT, 1933), p. 361.
131. J. S. Mill, Representative Government (1861), ch. 18.
132. For a detailed reconstruction of British attitudes, focused on
Birmingham, the Baptists and Jamaica, C. Hall, Civilising Subjects:
Metropole and Colony in the British Imagination 1830–1867 (2002),
Part Two.
133. Parl. Deb., Third Series, vol. 190,col.394 (28 November 1867).
134.PP1872 (C.493) XXXVII.383. Memorandum by
Commander-in-Chief on the Secretary of State’s Proposals for
Organization of Military Land Forces,p.7.
135. See C. Jones, ‘Business Imperialism and Argentina 1875–1900:A
Theoretical Note’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 12, 2 (1980),
437–44.
668 / Notes to pages 64–8
Chapter 2
1. A. J. H. Latham and L. Neal, ‘The International Market in Wheat
and Rice, 1868–1914’, Economic History Review, New Series, 36, 2
(1983), 260–75.
2. BLIOC, Curzon Papers, Mss Eur. F 111, Lord George Hamilton to
Curzon (India), 2 November 1899.
3. M. Swartz, The Politics of British Foreign Policy in the Age of
Disraeli and Gladstone (1985), p. 13.
4. C. H. Pearson, National Life and Character (1893); B. Kidd, Social
Evolution (1894); A. Mahan, The Problem of the Pacific (1900); J.
Bryce, The Relations between the Advanced and Backward Peoples
(Oxford, 1902); H. Mackinder, ‘The Geographical Pivot of History’,
Geographical Journal, 23, 4 (1904), 421–37.
5. Sandford Fleming, quoting Parkin at the Colonial Conference, held
in Ottawa in 1894. Proceedings of the Colonial Conference (Ottawa,
1894), p. 89.
6. Mackinder, ‘Geographical Pivot’, p. 422.
7. Kidd, Social Evolution,p.339.
8. Pearson, National Life,p.13. For Pearson’s career, see J. Tregenza,
Professor of Democracy: The Life of C. H. Pearson (Melbourne,
1968).
9. Pearson, National Life, pp. 84–5.
10. Kidd, Social Evolution,p.50.
11. J. Bryce, ‘The Roman Empire and the British Empire in India’, in
Studies in History and Jurisprudence (Oxford, 1901), pp. 1–2.
12. Ibid., pp. 6–7.
13. Ibid., p. 36.
14. See A. Lyall, ‘The Religious Situation in India’, Asiatic Studies 1
(1899), 320–3.
15. See T. Raychaudhuri, Europe Reconsidered: Perceptions of the
West in Nineteenth-Century Bengal (Oxford, 1989).
669 / Notes to pages 68–73
16. S. Teng and J. K. Fairbank (eds.), China’s Response to the West
(Cambridge, MA, 1979), p. 152.
17. E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887),
pp. 20, 65, 387.
18. See A. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798–1939
(1962).
19. The classic study is B. H. Sumner, Russia and the Balkans
1870–1880 (Oxford. 1937).
20. For this estimate, see R. W. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone
and the Eastern Question (1935), pp. 560–1.
21. See Swartz, The Politics of British Foreign Policy,p.101.
22. G. Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh (1963), p. 442: Salisbury to
Layard, April 1880.
23. See A. Sch
¨
olch, ‘Egypt for the Egyptians’: The Socio-Political
Crisis in Egypt 1879–1882 (1981).
24. See J. R. I. Cole, Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East:
The Social and Cultural Origins of the ‘Urabi Movement’ (Princeton,
1993).
25. See Baron Meyendorff (ed.), Correspondance diplomatique de M.
de Staal 1884–1900 (Paris, 1929), vol. 1,p.30: Instruction to De
Staal (Russian ambassador in London), 8 June 1884.
26. See D. A. Farnie, East and West of Suez: the Suez Canal in History
(Oxford, 1969), esp. p. 294; and A. G. Hopkins’ scintillating critique
in ‘The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of
Egypt, 1882’, Journal of African History, 27, 2 (1986) 363–91.
27. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians,p.111.
28. For Egyptian hostility towards Europeans in these two towns in
the 1870s, see Cole, Colonialism and Revolution,p.203.
29. H.C.G.Matthew,The Gladstone Diaries (1881–1883),vol.X
(Oxford, 1990), p. 327: Gladstone to Ripon (India), 6 September
1882.
670 / Notes to pages 73–9
30. B. Holland, The Life of Spencer Compton Eighth Duke of
Devonshire (1911), vol I, p. 295.
31. Seton-Watson, Eastern Question,p.236: Disraeli to the Queen,
3 November 1877.
32. See Farnie, East and West of Suez,ch.14.
33. Ibid., ch. 12.
34. Ibid., p. 265.
35. The classic account is P. M. Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan
1881–1898 (Oxford, 1958).
36. See R. C. Mowat, ‘From Liberalism to Imperialism: The Case of
Egypt, 1875–1887’, Historical Journal, 16, 1 (1973), 109–24.
37. P. G. Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation 1908–1914
(Cambridge, MA, 1971), p. 2.
38. For the diplomacy of the Berlin conference, see S. Forster,
W. Mommsen and R. E. Robinson, Bismarck, Europe and Africa
(Oxford, 1988).
39. For Cromer’s ‘reign’ in Egypt, see R. Owen, Lord Cromer
(Oxford, 2004); R. L. Tignor, Britain and the Modernization of Egypt
1882–1914 (Princeton, 1966); A. Milner, England and Egypt (1892);
and his own magnificent two-volume apologia, Modern Egypt (1908).
40. Essays by the Late Marquess of Salisbury (1905), p. 55 (originally
published in 1862).
41. Swartz, British Foreign Policy,p.25.
42. Essays,p.12
43. Ibid., p. 53.
44. The best recent analysis of Salisbury’s foreign policy can be found
in E. D. Steele, Lord Salisbury: A Political Biography (1999).
45. For the pattern of French conquest, see A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The
Conquest of the Western Sudan (Cambridge, 1969); M. Klein, Slavery
and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge, 1998).
671 / Notes to pages 79–86
46. Quoted by D. Gillard, ‘Salisbury’, in Wilson, Foreign Secretaries,
p. 122.
47. E. T. S. Dugdale (ed.), German Diplomatic Documents
1871–1914 (1929), vol. II, pp. 403–4: Hatzfeldt to Holstein,
21 January 1896.
48. See J. A. S. Grenville, Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy (1964),
ch. 6.
49. See G. N. Curzon, Problems of the Far East (1894).
50. LoHui-min(ed.),The Correspondence of G. E. Morrison, 2 vols.
(Cambridge, 1976), vol. I, pp. 35, 40: Chirol to Morrison, 26 May, 11
August 1898.
51. L. K. Young, British Policy in China 1895–1902 (Oxford, 1970),
p. 70.
52. Ibid., pp. 92ff.: Salisbury to MacDonald, 23 May 1900. See also
T. G. Otte, ‘The Boxer Uprising and British Foreign Policy: The End
of Isolation’, in R. Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann (eds.), The Boxers,
China and the World (2007), pp. 157–77; and his longer study, The
China Question: Great Power Rivalry and British Isolation (Oxford,
2007).
53. Anon., Blackwood’s Magazine, 168 (December 1900).
54. See R. Kubicek, The Administration of Imperialism (Durham,
NC, 1969).
55. See R. J. Blyth, The Empire of the Raj: India, Eastern Africa and
the Middle East, 1858–1947 (2003).
56. A. P. Kaminsky, The India Office 1880–1910 (Westport, CT,
1986), p. 107.
57. For the debate on this question, see J. MacKenzie (ed.),
Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester, 1983); B. Porter, The
Absent-Minded Imperialists: What the British Really Thought About
Empire (Oxford, 2004); A. Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back
(2006).
58. Its classic expression is in R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa
and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism (1961).
672 / Notes to pages 87–93
59. For some discussion of the debate, see J. Darwin, ‘Imperialism and
the Victorians’, English Historical Review, 112, 447 (1997), 614–42.
60. See P. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism (2nd edn,
2000).
61. Lugard to his brother, 29 August 1895, in M. Perham, Lugard:
The Years of Adventure 1858–1898 (1956), p. 555.
62. K. Wilson, ‘Drawing the Line at Constantinople’, in K. Wilson
(ed.), British Foreign Secretaries and Foreign Policy: From the
Crimean War to the First World War (1986), p. 202: Salisbury to
Randolph Churchill, 1 October 1886.
63. Darwin, ‘Imperialism and the Victorians’, p. 628.
64. Bodl. Mss Selborne Box 5, Salisbury to Selborne, 26 August 1897.
65. Salisbury’s remark, Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the
Victorians,p.454.
66. Rhodes House Library, Mss Afr.S 1525, John Holt Papers Box
3/7, George Goldie to George Miller, 13 November 1887.
67. J. Flint, Sir George Goldie and the Making of Nigeria (1960),
p. 275: Goldie to Colonial Office, 21 July 1897.
68. Flint, Goldie,p.258; for the blitz of articles launched by Lugard
in the British press in 1895–6, Perham, Lugard: The Years of
Adventure,p.544.
69. Flint, Goldie,p.207.
70. Bodl. Mss Milner 3, Milner to Clinton Dawkins, 1 March 1895.
71. Bodl. Mss Milner 3, Dawkins to Milner, 18 February 1895.
72. Bodl. Mss Milner 3, Dawkins to Milner, 17 July 1896.
73. Salisbury’s essay was reprinted in P. Smith, Lord Salisbury on
Politics (Cambridge, 1972).
74. H. Spencer, The Man Versus the State (1884).
75. D. A. Hamer, John Morley: Liberal Intellectual in Politics
(Oxford, 1968), p. 162.
673 / Notes to pages 93–8
76. R. F. Foster, Lord Randolph Churchill (Oxford, 1981), p. 319.
77. P. Marsh, Joseph Chamberlain: Entrepreneur in Politics (New
Haven, 1994), p. 191.
78. W. S. Churchill, Lord Randolph Churchill (new edn,1951),
pp. 375–6.
79. Ibid., p. 521.
80. Kubichek, Administration of Imperialism,p.76.
81. See J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (1902).
82. G. R. Sloan, The Geopolitics of Anglo-Irish Relations in the
Twentieth Century (1997).
83. P. Marsh, The Discipline of Popular Government (1978), p. 303:
Salisbury to Cranbrook, 19 October 1900.
84. For a classic expression, see F. W. Hirst, ‘Imperialism and
Finance’, in Liberalism and the Empire: Three Essays (1900), p. 75.
85. A. M. Gollin, Proconsul in Politics (1964), p. 106: Milner to
Amery, 1 December 1906; B. Porter, The Absentee-Minded
Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture in Britain (Oxford, 2004).
86. See A. S. Thompson, Imperial Britain: The Empire in British
Politics c. 1880–1922 (2000), esp. chs. 1, 2, 3. See also his important
study, The Empire Strikes Back: The Impact of Imperialism on Britain
since the Mid-Nineteenth Century (2005).
87. T. W. Freeman, A Hundred Years of Geography (1961), pp. 58–9.
88. J. MacKenzie, ‘The Provincial Geographical Societies in Britain,
1884–1914’, in M. Bell, R. Butlin and M. Heffernan (eds.),
Geography and Imperialism 1820–1940 (Manchester, 1995).
89.C.4715 (1886), Royal Commission on Trade and Industry,
Second Report, Appendix Part One, p. 408.
90. Ibid., p. 402.
91. Ibid., p. 406.
92. B. R. Mitchell, Abstract of British Historical Statistics
(Cambridge, 1971), pp. 47, 50.
674 / Notes to pages 98–101
93. For this estimate, see A. N. Porter, ‘Religion and Empire: British
Experience in the Long Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History, 20, 3 (1992), 15–31.
94. See the studies in M. Harper (ed.), Emigrant Homecomings: The
Return Movement of Migrants 1600–2000 (Manchester, 2007).
95. H. A. L. Fisher, James Bryce (1927)vol.I,p.172.
96. A. Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism (Cambridge,
1968), pp. 21–2.
97. See J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of England (1883); J. A. Froude,
Oceana, or England and Her Colonies (1886); C. W. Dilke, Greater
Britain (1869).
98. C. W. Dilke, The Present Position in European Politics (1887),
p. 360.
99. See S. Potter, News and the British World: The Emergence of an
Imperial Press System 1876–1922 (Oxford, 2003).
100. For Lord Strathcona, Canadian High Commissioner in London
1896–1914, see B. Willson, The Life of Lord Strathcona and Mount
Royal (1915), chs. 21ff. Strathcona was Canada’s most prestigious
businessman.
101. See C. Kaul, Reporting the Raj: The British Press and India
1880–1922 (Manchester, 2003).
102. S. D. Chapman, Merchant Enterprise in Britain: from the
Industrial Revolution to World War I (Cambridge, 1992), p. 203.
103. W. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West
(New York, 1991), p. 126.
104. For an evocative account, see R. Jefferies, ‘A Wheat Country’, in
his Hodge and His Masters (1880).
105. For the peerage (who did better), see A. Adonis, Making
Aristocracy Work: The Peerage and the Political System in Britain
1884–1914 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 244–5. For the gentry, see D.
Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (1990),
p. 126.