Inversin R. Allen Micro-hydropower Sourcebook

APPENDIX II

PREPWG CONCRETE*

Concrete is composed of cement, sand, gravel, and

water. To obtain workability, strength, durability, and

impermeability, the above ingredients must be mixed

thoroughly. Good-quality concrete should weigh from

about 2300 to 2350 kgf/m3.

Cement

--~

Cements are classified by their properties and chemical

composition. Normal setting Portland cement (Type I)

should be used for concrete structures and concrete

watercourse linings when the concrete is not subject to

sulfate attacks from the soil or water.

Sand and gravel

--

Sand and gravel used in quality concrete must be clean

and free of clay, silt, and organic matter. The presence

of these foreign materials will prevent the cement

from

binding the sand and gravel together and result in a

weak and porous concrete.

Sand particles for concreteshould be clean and hard and

range in size from very fine to those that will just pass

a No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm).

Gravel must be hard and durable and reasonably well

graded and range in size from 1 to 4 cm. Maximum size

shall not exceed one-third of the thickness of nonrein-

forced concrete or three-fourths of the clear space in

reinforced concrete.

Water

Water must be clean and free from silt, oil, salt, alkali,

and acid. Generally speaking, water that is fit to drink

is suitable for mixing concrete.

Pmportlons

The proportion of gravel, sand, cement, and water must

be measured and controlled accurately. This requires

the use of scales or calibrated measuring containers. A

minimum of six bags (50 kg/bag) of cement and 1.2 m3

of well-proportioned sand and gravel that has bee

screened or tested will yield approximately 1.0 m

Y

of

quality concrete. The 1.2 m3 of sand and gravel should

270 Appendices

have a ratio of 65% gravel and 35% sand. This is about

a 1:2:4 (cement, sand, gravel) volume proportion.

A minimum of seven bags (50 kg/bag) of cement with

1.2 m3 of fair to poor sangand gravel (all pit run) will

yield 3pproximately 1.0 m of quality concrete. The

1.2 m of sand and gravel should have a ratio of

40%-50% maximum of sand and 50%-60% minimum of

gravel. This is about a 1:2:3 (cement, sand, gravel) vol-

ume proportion.

The water/cement ratio is a critical factor in quality

concrete. Lowering the water content will result in

stronger concrete, but the amount of water must be

enough to produce a workable mix. Excessive water will

cause shrinkage cracks and a weak porous concrete.

The water/cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of

water in a mix (including the

water

in the sand and

gravel) to the weight of cement in the mix. The

water/cement ratio for quality concrete should be 0.45.

To maintain this ratio, limit water to 20-25 C/bag of

cement for dry sand and gravel and 15-20 C of water

when wet sand and gravel are used. Using a volume

proportioning, the proportion of water is about two-

thirds the proportion of cement.

Concrete should be mixed thoroughly but not overmixed.

Cement must come in contact with and surround all sur-

faces of the sand and gravel. The cement must fill the

spaces (voids) between the sand and gravel par;icles.

Machine-mixing is preferable and will give the oest dis-

tribution of ingredients and a uniform appearance to the

concrete. To maintain quality concrete, the mixer

should not be loaded above its capacity and should be

operated at the recommended drum speed. The gravel

should be placed in the drum first, followed by smd and

then cement. The drum should be revolving when it is

charged. A small quantity of the water should be placed

in the drum before the dry materials are placed in the

drum. This wii! prevent

the accumulation of cement

around the blades. The rast oi

r‘ the water may be added

* The source of most of the material on preparing

concrete is the On-Farm Water Management Fie!d

Manual, Vol. Vfiational Standards for Practices,

Materials and structures (17).

simultaneously with the dry materials. There is no need

for any dry mixing before the water is added. The min-

imum time of mixing should be two minutes.

Hand-mixing concrete must be done on a clean water-

tight platform or wheelbarrow. The amount of ?and and

gravel should be limited to approximately 0.1 m . The

concrete mixing and its placement should be completed

within 10 minutes. Cement and sand should first be

mixed while dry until the mixture is thoroughly blended

and uniform in color. The gravel should then be added

to the mixture of sand and cement and mixed by turning

the ingredients a minimum of three times before adding

water. The measured amount of water then is added

and the ingredients turned a minimum of five times.

Mixing should continue until the concrete is of a uni-

form color.

Placing the cimaete

Preparation before placement of concrete includes

compacting and moistening the soil and erecting the

forms. If concrete is placed against dry soil and forms,

excessive water will be extracted from the concrete.

To maintain quality concrete, be sure the soil and forms

are moist. Forms should be clean, tight, and adequately

braced; sawdust, nails, and other debris should be

removed before concrete is placed. Forms treated with

motor oil will facilitate removal from concrete that has

set.

Place the concrete immediately after mixing. Place in

a position and manner to limit flow and subsequent

segregation of the gravel and sand particles.

Thoroughly tamp and compact the concrete as it is

being placed to eliminate voids or honey combing.

Screed to the grade of the forms or templates and finish

by troweling. Do not

overtrowel,

because this will

result in flaking and a porous surface of the finishing

concrete.

Excessive or rapid evaporation Of water from freshly

placed

concrete will cause cracking,

shrinkage, and low-

quality concrete.

Protect concrete from rapid drying or curing

for

five

days after placement. This may be accomplished by

submerging in water, applying membrane curing, or

covering with continuously moist burlap, canvas, straw,

plastic,

or

soil.

Do not place concrete when there is danger of frost,

unless provision has been made to protect the concrete

from freezing.

Removal

of forms

Forms may be removed when the concrete attains suffi-

cient strength to support the dead loads and live loads

imposed upon it. Generally speaking, good-quality con-

crete

under

ideal conditions will attain a strength of

approximately 35 kgf/cm’/day in the first three or four

days; thereafter, the curing

process

slows down consid-

erably. Table D.l can be used as a guide for removing

forms and placing concrete structures in moderate

ser-

vice.

Description of concrete structure

Minimum t3hmgth

requirements

Minimum curing

time required

04

Concrete not subject to appreciable bending or direct stress, not

reliant on forms for vertical support, not liable to injury by removal

of forms or other construction activity.

35 kgf/cm2

(500 psi)

24

Concrete subject to appreciable bending or direct stress and partially

reliant on forms for vertical support.

Subject to dead load only.

50 kgf/cm2

(750 psi)

36

Subject to dead load and live load.

110 kgf/cm2

(1500 psi)

72

Concrete

subject to high bending stress and wholly or almost wholly

reliant on forms for vertical support.

140 kgf/cm2

(2000 psi)

108

Appendices 27 1

APPENDIX E

MASONRY*

Brick or stone masonry is frequently used in the con-

struction of portions of the civil works for small hydro-

power projects, for the diversion structure, intake, and

forebay, and sometimes for the powerhouse and lining of

the power canal. The principal reasons for this are the

difficulty of obtaining cement in sufficient quantity

for

concrete structures in many developing countries, its

high cost, and difficulties in transporting it to remote,

rural areas. Brick or stone masonry permits use of local

materials to replace some of the volume for which con-

crete would otherwise be necessary. Because a signifi-

cant portion of the volume of quality concrete uses

locally available sand and aggregate, the savings of con-

crete may not be as great as they might initially appear,

but they are still significant.

For a typical wall of brick masonry, about 20% of the

volume is joint mortar. If the surface of the structure

is plastered, an additional 5% of the volu

‘s

e of brick

masonry is plaster mortgr. Although 1 m

of quality

conSrete requires 0.2 m of cement (six 50 kg bags),

1 m 05 plastered brick masonry requires about 25% or

0.25 m of mortar or about 0.07 m of cement (two

50 kg bags). Consequently, if plastered brick masonry is

used, only about one-third of the amount of cement as

that required for poured concrete would be needed. If

the structure is not plastered, only about 25% of the

amount of cement required for poured concrete would

be needed. Further savings in concrete can be obtained

by using stones larger than bricke in the masonry.

Brick and stone masonry requires a mix of cement and

sand to join the bricks into on impervious stable mass.

Portland cement is used; the sand should be well graded,

clean, and free from harmful substances; and the water

should be free from undesirable impurities (see

APPEN-

DDC D, p. 270).

The mortar for the joints should be prepared with a

cement/sand ratio of 1:4 by volume to obtain a workable

mix; about 23 t’ of water per 50 kg sack of cement

should be added with a fine spray. This assumes that

the sand is dry. Because any mortar not used after 30

minutes should be discarded, the quantity mixed each

time should be determined accordingly.

If bricks are to be used, only the best should be

selected. They should be soaked in a tank for at least

24 hours before they are used. They are then laid with

fresh, well-mixed mortar. The horizontal joints should

be parallel. The vertical joints on alternate courses

should be directly

over

one another. The thickness of

the joints should be about 1.0 cm, and these should be

properly filled with mortar. To achieve this, mortar is

applied to the sides of the bricks already laid. The next

(wet) brick is laid 3-5 cm away and then pressed toward

the first brick, squeezing out the mortar indicating that

the joint has been filled. The joints on the surfaces to

be plastered or pointed (Fig. E.l) should be raked out to

a depth of 1 cm before the mortar sets.

The other

joints should be filled and struck smooth before the

mortar sets. Curing is done by keeping the masonry wet

a minimum of five days by covering with wet burlap or

other saturated material or by sprinkling with water.

stone-cement masonry

I

(a)

0.d

] i

brick-cement masonry

Fig. E.1. Se&Ion views of stone-

and brick-

masonry work

with (a) joints raked in prepamtton for

0 plastering or (cl

polnttng.

Plastering

If the surface is to be plastered, a 1:3 cement/sand ratio

should be used. A good key must be provided in the

masonry work for the plaster to hold on firmly to pre-

vent its crazing or cracking off. For this purpose, all

joints in the masonry should be raked to a depth of 1 cm

before the mortar has set. Before plaster is applied, the

masonry should be brushed to remove all loose dust,

thoroughly washed with water, and watered for

* A significant portion of this material is from On-Farm

Water Management Field Manual, Vol. V. National

Standards For Practices, Materials and Structures. (17).

272 Appendices

24 hours. A 1 cm-thick layer of plaster is then laid on

the masonry. Vertical screeds or wooden strips csn be

placed temporarily at regular intervals along the BUT-

face. A straight-edge then worked sideways and upward

along the screeds ensures sufficient thickness of the

plaster and a flat surface.

The surface is then finished

with a wooden float.

smooth and watertight. A 1:2 cement/sand mortar is

then necessary, with only enough water to make a work-

able mix. The surface of the masonry work is prepared

in a manner similar to that required for plastering. ‘fhe

joints are then filled in with the mortar and compacted

using a pointing trowel.

Rather than plastering, pointing can be used to fill in

the joints in brick- or stone-masonry work to make it

Appendices 273

APPENDIX F

WmRHAMMER

Descriptia of phenomenon

Water hammer is a term which refers to the transient

pressure peaks which occur in a pipe when there is a

rapid change in the flow velocity within it. Figure F.l

illustrates how a velocity change caused by an instanta-

neous closure of a gate at the end of a pipe creates

pressure waves traveling within the pipe.

Initially, water flows at some velocity “v ’ as shown in

(a). When the gate is closed, the water f&wing within

the pipe has a tendency to continue flowing because of

its momentum. Because it is physically prevented from

so doing, it “piles up” behind the gate; the kinetic

energy of the element of water nearest the gate is con-

verted to pressure energy, which slightly compresses the

water and expands the circumference of the pipe at this

point (b). This action is repeated by the following ele-

ments of water (c), and the wave front of increased

pressure travels the length of the pipe until the velocity

of the water “v. ” is destroyed, the water is compressed,

and the pipe is expanded its entire length (d). At this

point, the water’s kinetic energy has all been converted

to strain energy of the water (under increased compres-

sion) and strain energy of the pipe (under increased ten-

sion).

Because the water in the reservoir remains under nor-

mal static pressure but the water in the pipe is now

under a higher pressure, the flow reverses and is forced

back into the reservoir again with velocity “vO” (e). As

the water under compression starts flowing back, the

pressure in the pipe is reduced to normal static pres-

sure. A pressure “unloading” wave then travels down

the pipe toward the gate (f) until all the strain energy is

converted back into kinetic

energy

(g). However, unlike

case (a), the water is now flowing in the opposite direc-

tion and because of its momentum, the water again tries

to maintain this velocity. In so doing, it stretches the

element of water nearest the gate, reducing the pres-

sure there and contracting the pipe (h). This happens

with successive elements of water and a negative pres-

sure wave propagates back to the reservoir (i) until the

entire pipe is under compression and water under

reduced pressure (j). This negative pressure wave would

have the same absolute magnitude as the initial positive

pressure wave if it is assumed that friction losses do not

exist. The velocity then returns to zero but the lower

pressure in the pipe compared to that in the reservoir

forces water to flow back into the pipe (k). The pres-

sure surge travels back toward the gate (e) until the

274 Appendices

entire cycle is complete and a second cycle commences

(b). The velocity with which the pressure front moves is

a function of the speed of sound in water modified by

the elastic characteristics of the pipe material.

In reality, the penstock pipe is usually inclined but the

effect remains the same, with the surge pressure at

each point along the pipe adding to or subtracting from

the static pressure at that point. Also, the damping

effect of friction within the pipe causes the kinetic

energy of the flow to dissipate gradually and the ampli-

tude of the pressure oscillations to decrease with time.

Critical time

-

Although some valves close almost instantaneously, clo-

sure usually takes at least several seconds. Still, if the

valve is closed before the initial pressure surge returns

to the gate end of the pipeline (g), the pressure peak

will remain unchanged-all the kinetic energy contained

in the water near the gate will eventually be converted

to strain energy and result in the same peak pressure as

if the gate were closed instantaneously. However, if

the gate has been closed only partially by the time the

initial pressure surge returns to the gate (g), not all the

kinetic energy will have been converted to strain energy

and the pressure peak will be lower. If the gate then

continues closing, the positive pressure surge which it

would then create will be reduced somewhat by the

negative pressure (h) surge which originated whsen the

gate originally began closing. Consequently, if the gate

opens or closes in more time than that required for the

pressure surge to travel to the reservoir and back to the

gate, peak surge pressures are reduced. This time is

called the critical time “Tc” and is equal to:

T, = $+

(5.18)

The wave velocity, or speed of sound, in water is

approximately 1420 m/s. However, the wave velocity in

a pipe-the speed with which the pressure surge travels

along the pipe-is a function of both the elastic charac-

teristics of water and the pipe material. An expression

for the wave velocity is:

1420

(5.19)

(1)

L ,,,,

)’

p , p, (pcsitive surge)

m p = p, (static pressure, functioa of depth only)

n p < p, (negative surge)

Ig. F.1. Movement

along a pipe of a

Pale Surge

_ _

_ -

_ *

. . .

Caused by a Sudden gate closure (shown exagyerutew.

Appendices 27 5

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The commonly used acronyms included within some of

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280 References

Inversin R. Allen Micro-hydropower Sourcebook

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