Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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otherpartsoftheworld…TheSovietshavetestedustoseeiftheycouldcontrolevents.Of

courseyouhavetoconsiderthemuchbiggerstakesintheMiddleEastandEurope.Partofthe

reasonforconductingourVietnamwithdrawalsoslowlyistogivesomemessagethatweare

notpreparedtopayanypriceforendingawar;wemustnowaskourselveswhatwearewilling

topaytoavertwar.Ifwearenot,wehavetoughdaysahead.



Nixon’sview,withwhichIagreed,wasnotsharedbythemedia,our

bureaucracy,ortheCongress.Istillbelieveitwascorrect.Thecrisisalso

demonstratedtheerrorofthemyththatNixon,aidedbyme,exercisedan

octopuslikegripoveragovernmentthatwaskeptinignoranceofouractivities.

Onsomeinitiatives—especiallyintherealmofbila teral negotiations—thiswas

true.ButinotherareasNixon’smethodsinpartresultedfromthefractiousnessof

thebureaucracyandinpartfromhisownreluctancetodisciplinethe

bureaucracy.Assooften,thehandlingoftheIndia‐Pakistancrisisreflecteddeep

divisionswithinourgovernmentthatwerecompoundedbyNixon’sindirectionin

conveyinghisviews.Theupshotwastheoppositeofthefolklore:notwidening

WhiteHousedominancebutbitterdepartmentalrearguardresistance;notclear‐

cutdirectivesbutellipticalmaneuverstokeepopenoptions;nottheinabilityof

theagenciestopresenttheirviewsbutthedifficultyfacedbytheChiefexecutive

inmakinghisviewsprevail.ThattheseconditionsreflectedsomeofNixon’s

psychologicalpeculiaritiesdoesnotchangethefundamentalconclusion.The

historyofthe“tilt” islessataleofPresidentialself‐willthanofthecomplexityof

managingamoderngovernment—especiallybyaPresidentunwillingtolaydown

thelawdirectly.Whowasrightinthisdisputeisirrelevant;Presidentsmustbe

abletocountonhavingtheirviewsacceptedeveniftheseruncounterto

bureaucraticpreconceptions.Ihaverepeatedlystatedthattheadministrative

practicesoftheNixonAdministrationwereunwiseandnotsusta inableinthelong

run;fairnessrequiresanadmissionthattheydidnottakeplaceinavacuum.



ThecrisiswasnosooneroverthantheWhiteHousefounditselfinthe

vortexofastormofleaksanddenunciat ions.AsearlyasDecember13,the

columnistJackAndersonbegantopublishexcerptsfromDefenseDepartment

notesofWSAGmeetings.OuroppositiontoIndia’smilitaryaction—ourpublic

position,forwhichwewereindeedattacked—washeldtobeastartling

revelationthatprovedusliarswhenwedeniedananti‐Indianbias.Reamsof

otherclassifiedinformationsproutedinthenewspapers—cablesfromKenneth

KeatinginIndia,forexample,whichurgedpressureonYahyaordisputedmy

December7backgrounder.

Themovementsofourfleet,whichareasarule

secret,foundtheirwayinstantlyintoprint.Rogersgaveventtoyearsof

frustrationbycontradictingmyremarksonAirforceOneandannouncingata

pressconferenceonDecember23thattheMoscowsummitwasbynomeans

impairedbyeventsonthesubcontinent.Healsodeniedthatwehadanykindof

militarycommitmenttoPakistanifthreatenedbyIndia—whichwasafine

lawyer’spoint.AndtheinvestigationoftheleaksrevealedthataNavyyeoman

whohadservedasaclerkonmystaffhadsystematicallycopiedNSCdocuments

entrustedtohimandpassedthemontohissuperiorsatthePentagon.



Nixoncouldbeaspettyincalmperiodsashewasboldincrises,assmall‐

mindedindealingwithhisasso ciatesashecouldbefarsightedindefenseofthe

nationalinterest.AfterthefirstflushofelationoverMrs.Gandhi’scease‐fire,

Nixongavestrictordersthatallbriefingsemphasizehiscentralrole.Butasthe

criticismmounted,hebegantolookforwaystogetoutofthelineoffire.No

doubthewasinfluencedinpartbyanunderstandableresentmentthatIhad

receivedwhatheconsideredexorbitantcreditfortheforeignpolicysuccessesof

theAdministration,whilealltheblameforitsharshermeasureshadfallenon

him.Buttheproximatecausewasthesummit.ThoughNixonhadtalkedof

cancelingthesummitonDecember8andwastodosoagainonDecember16,my

actuallymentioningitto thepressonDecember14triggeredallhisambivalences.

HehadhisheartsetoncompletingthejourneythatEisenhowerhadplannedin

1960butneveraccomplished.Itmeantagreatdealtohimtobethefirst

AmericanPresidentinMoscow.Thoughheformallybackedme,hewasnotinfact

willingtojeopardizethatcoup.TheresultwasaneffortbytheWhiteHouse

publicrelationsexpertstodeflectontometheattackonourconductduringthe

India‐Pakistancrisis.Thepolicybecamemypolicy.ForseveralweeksNixonwas

unavailable tome.Zieglermadenostatementofsupport,nordidhedenypress

accountsthatIwasoutoffavor.Thedepartmentswerenotadmonishedtocease

theirleakingagainstme.Nixo ncouldnotresistthetemptationoflettingmetwist

slowly,slowlyinthewind,tousetheliterarycontributionofalaterperiod.Itwas

asternlessoninthedependenceofPresidentialAssistantsontheirchief.Ididnot

takekindly—orevenmaturely—tomyfirstexperienceofsustainedpublic

criticismandPresidentialpressures.



Andthensuddenlyitwasallover.Thecrisisonthesubcontinentdidnot

lingerandsotherewasnofocalpointforfesteringcriticism.Iwassoonenough

returnedtofavorwiththePresidentandweresumedourpreviouswary

relationship—closeonsubstance,aloofpersonally.Therewasotherbusinessto

turnto.Thebasicstructureofourforeignpolicywasintact.Planningforboth

summitswassoonresumed.Astringofspectacularforeignpolicysuccessessoon

wipedouttheepisodeandgainedpopularsupport. Pekinghadlearnedthatwe

tookseriouslytherequirementsofthebalanceofpower;Moscowhadseena

sufficientlystrongreactionnottobetemptedtotestusinareasofmorecentral

concern.Wehadsurvivedthestormwiththerudderintact.Wecouldresumeour

course.



<<Contents>>



****



XXII



CrisisintheAlliance:

TheMansfieldAmendmentandthe

EconomicConfrontation



MediterraneanJourney



llPresidentialtripsareinevitablypresentedasgrandexercisesin

diplomacy.NobodywhohastraveledwithPresidentscantakethe

descriptionseriouslyformostsuchjourneys.Diplomacyoperatesthrough

deadlock,whichisonewaybywhichtwosidescantesteachother’s

determination.Eveniftheyhavetheegosforit,fewheadsofgovernmenthave

thetimetoresolvestalemates;theirmeetingsaretooshortandthedemandsof

protocoltooheavy.Hence,tripsbyheadsofgovernmentusuallyfindtheir

principaljustificationincreatingasymbolism,insettingdeadlinesforlower‐level

negotiations,andinpermittingleaderstotakeeachother’smeasure.Theyare

alsoawaytodemonstrateintentionsandtoemphasizeacommitment.

A



Thereis,ofcourse,anarrowerpoliticalbonus.TosaythatNixonindeciding

onhissecondEuropeantripwasunawareoftheglowitmightcastonthe

forthcomingCongressionalelectionswouldbetodenyhimthequalitiesthatled

himtothePresidency.Hehad,afterall,strenuouslysoughtaSovietsummitfor

thisperiod,andhewasbrieflytemptedbyameetingwiththeheadsof

governmentofBritain,France,andtheFederalRepublicthathadbeenproposed

byWillyBrandttogiveimpetusandsanctiontoOstpolitik.Pompidouhadbalked

becausehewantedtoavoidtheimplicationthatBrandtwasnegotiatingonbehalf

oftheWestasawhole.AndNixon’sviewsonOstpolitik,describedearlier,didnot

makehimeagertoendorseitsodramatically.Thetrip,therefore,wasbuilt

aroundvisitstoItaly,Yugoslavia,Spain,andIreland,plusanovernightstopwith

theSixthFleetandaluncheonmeetingwiththenewBritishPrimeMinister,

EdwardHeath,atChequers.TheMediterraneanfocus,andthestaywiththeSixth

Fleet,emphasizedourcontinuingdeterminationtoplayaroleinthesecurityand

evolutionofthearea.SovietinfluenceintheMiddleEasthadbeengrowingsince

1967.WehadjustgonethroughtheautumnofcrisesalongtheSuezCanalandin

Jordan.Libyahadbeentakenoverbyaradicalregime.



Nixon’sjourneybeganinRomeonSeptember27,1970,whereIjoinedhim

aftermymeetingwithXuanThuyinParis.BythatfallItalianpoliticswereinthe

throesofoneofthoseconvolutedmaneuverswhichtoanoutsiderseemeda

routinechangeofgovernmentbutwhichinfactamountedtoanaccelerationof

theleftwardtrendcharacteristicofItalianpoliticssincethe“openingtotheleft”

in1963.WhenNixonhadvisitedItalyin1969,MarianoRumorhadbeenPrime

MinisterinagovernmentcomposedentirelyofChristianDemocratsbut

governingwiththetacticalsupportoftheSocialists.Duringthe“hotautumn” of

1969,theCommunist‐dominatedtradeunions madetheirstrengthfeltinaseries

ofviolentstrikesoftenwindingupasriots.Theunionssucceededingetting

passedtheso‐called Workers’Statute,whichinadditiontorelievingmany

injusticesalsoshiftedthebalanceofpowerinlabornegotiationsdecisively

towardtheunions.WestEuropeanCommunists hadnotyetdiscoveredthe

virtuesofNATO;bothofNixon’svisitstoItalyweregreetedbyCommunist‐

sponsoredriotsdirectedagainstNATO,Vietnam,and,forgoodmeasure,the

President.



TheItalianregionalelectionsinJunehadtemporarilyhaltedtheCommunist

progressbuthadproducednewfrictionswithinthegoverning coalition.The

Socialists,havinggainedslightly,interpretedtheirsuccessasanendorsementofa

movefarthertotheleft,allthemoresoasthepartiesontherightwererouted.

TheChristianDemocratswereindisarray,tornbetweenaleftwingseparated

fromtheCommunistslargelybyreligiousfaithandarightwingsplitfromtheneo‐

fascistsprimarilybydemocraticconvictions.TheCommunistswiththeir

disciplinedorganizationweretiltingtheentirespectrumtotheleft.Theywere

followingthestrategyoftheirtheoristAntonioGramsci,whichwassystematically

toinfiltratethekeyinstitutionsofthesociety—tradeunions,thejudiciary,

schools—beforeafinalpushtoobtainparticipationingovernment.



OnJuly7RumorresignedandEmilioColombobecamePrimeMinisterofa

four‐partycoalition(ChristianDemocrats,Republicans,socialDemocrats,and

Socialists).AldoMo rowasForeignMinister.Thegovernmentitselfwasshort‐

lived;thecoalitionwasnot.The“openingto theleft”hadprosperedtoapoint

whereitwasnolongerpossibletogovernwithouttheSocialists. Andthe

Socialistsinturnwereloathtoopentoowideagulfbetweenthemselvesandthe

Communists,withwhomtheywereincoalit ioninmanyprovincialgovernments.

TheCommuniststhushadagrowing,ifindirect,influenceontheItalian

government—aresultexactlyoppositetowhatthefathersofthe“openingtothe

left”intended.Somuchinfluence,infact,thatintimethewilyMorodecidedthat

hecouldusetheCommuniststoemasculatetheSocialists.IftacitCommunist

acquiescencewasneededinanyevent,itmightaswellbefo rmalized.The

Communistinfluencethereforegraduatedfromatacitto aformalvetounder

Moro’ssponsorship.



Thesetrendsseemedobvioustomethen,buttheywerehotlycontested

insideandoutsidetheUnitedStatesgovernment.Itwasfelteitherthat

Communistinfluencewasnotinfactgrowingorthatitmight notbeabadthingif

itwerebecauseitmightshocktheChristianDemocratsintoreform.Atanyrate,

therewasnothingconcretetobedoneaboutit.ChristianDemocratic political

leadersseemedconvincedthatperiodicvisitsbyleadingAmericansconfirmed

Italy’sinternationalimportanceandthusstrengthenedtheirownprospects.We

werehappyenoughtooblige:Nixon’svisithadthatpointandsodidsomeofmy

ownlateronwhenIwasSecretaryofState.Ineversawanyevidencethat

Presidentialorhigh‐levelvisitsaffectedItalianpoliticsonewayortheother.But

thenitisdifficult toprovethenegative—nooneknowsbyhowmuchtheleftward

trendwouldhaveacceleratediftheabsenceofsuchvisitshadbeenconstruedas

Americanneglect.



ThegeneralsenseofimpotencewasreflectedinaStateDepartment 

memorandumtothePresidentofJanuary22,1970,whichIlatersavedinafileof

vacuousrecommendations:Iturgedthatwe“keeptheproblemunderclose

scrutinyandcontinuallyassessthemeansofusingourresourcestomakeour

viewknowninadiscreet,buteffectivefashion.”Onhowtobebothdiscreetand

effectivetheauthorwasprudentlysilent.InfairnesstohimIhadnobetteridea.

ThereareproblemsthatareoutofthecontrolofAmericanpolicymakers.The

besttheycandoinsomesituationsisnottoaccelerateunfavorabletrendsby

proclaimingtheprobableoutcomeasthedesirableone. (Thiswas,inmyview,the

errorofthe“openingtotheleft”in1963andtheflirtationwithEurocommunism

in1977.)



WearrivedinRomeatnighttoareceptio nceremonyheldforsecurity

reasonsinthecourtyardoftheQuirinalePalace.Colorfullancersonhorseback

werelinedupinneatrowsasthenationalanthemswereplayed.Thecharming

Italiananthemisprobablytheleastmartial‐soundingoneintheworld;itisnot

easytogoforthtobattleto thestrainsofwhatsoundsalmostlikeawaltz.After

theceremonychaosdescended.TheQuirinale,theformersummerresidenceof

thePope,isoneofthelargeststructuresofitskindinEurope. Throngsof

reportersandofficialspusheduseverywhichway,inspiringpanicwiththe

realizationthatifoneheadeddownthewrongcorridoronemightnotbefound

againforweeks.Finally,themobconvergedonthecentralpointofalar ge

receptionhall.NixonandIwereculledouttobereunitedwithPresidentSaragat

forafirst,privatereviewoftheworldsituation.



GiuseppeSaragatwasthemostimpressivebyfaroftheItalianleaders—

thoughtful,decisive,andagoodfriendoftheUnitedStates.Unfortunately,he

sufferedfromtwohandicaps.Hisparty,thesocialDe mocrats,wasatrophying

undertheimpactofthe“openingtotheleft”anditsdecliningcontrolofthe

leversofpower.Andhisconstitutionalpositionasheadofstatepreventedhim

fromactiveparticipationinthepolicyprocessdespitehisconsiderablemoral

influence.Buthisopinionswerealwaysworthhearing.Saragatwasconcerned

aboutthegrowthofCommunistinfluence.Hethoughtitanillusiontobelievethat

Communistgainswouldbeconfinedtohiscountry;ifnotarrestedtheywould

surelyspreadelsewhereinEurope.Butheofferednoremedies.Heimpliedthere

mustbesomedeusexmachinathattheUnitedStatescouldconjureup.



HewaseloquentaboutthepsychologicalimpactofAmericanactionson

Europe.OurdomesticdebatesonVietnamwereunderminingEuropean

confidenceinourstabilityandsteadiness;thiswouldaffectpoliticsinmany

Europeancountries.Ostpolitik madeSaragatuneasy;itwasa wayfortheFederal

RepublictoseekaseparatedealwithMoscow;ithadbeentriggeredinpartby

diminishedAmericancredibility.TheUnitedStatesshouldbecarefulthatdétente

withtheSovietUnionappeartoresultfromstrength,orelseallofEuropewould

followtheGermanexample.



ThisgaveNixonanopportunitytoproclaimhiscommitmenttoNATO;he

didnotsparehyperbole.Hewaspreparedtoriskhispoliticallifeonthatissueand

hedidnotintendto“dieeasily.”Itwasaneloquentphrase,thoughperhapssome

dramaticlicensehadbeentakenwiththechoicesbeforeus.Nixonfacednothing

likethestarkalternativeshepainted.NATOwastheonepillarofourforeign

policythatstillhadsomedomesticconstituency;mostneo‐isolationists

proclaimedtheirdevotiontoitwhileattackingourinvolvementeverywhereelse.

TherewasnopossibilityofNixon’sdyingoverthatissue.Whenthemeetingwas

expandedtoincludeForeignMinisters,Nixoneloquentlyreite ratedhisbeliefs:“If

weallowthisgreatAlliancetofail,ifweallowittobecomefragmented,not

becauseofthelackofeconomiccapacitytodefendourinterestsbutbecauseof

thelackofwill,determination,intelligenceandleadershiptomaintainitand

strengthit,thiswouldbeatragedyformankind.”Nixonhadposedtherightissue.

Itwasthewilltorenewfaithindemocracythatwasbeing challengedintoomany

countries,intheriots,bitterness,anddivisionsoftheearly1970s.



Theprecisionofthediscussionsdidnotimproveat thestateguesthouse,

theVillaMadama,onanotherofRome’shills.Themeetinghereillustratedthe

fundamentalobstaclestoagenuinedialogue.Italianpolitics—whichconcernedus

most—wereoutsidethepurviewofformaldiscussions.Inturn,foreignpolicy

issuesseemedtotheItalianleaderssubsidiarytotheirinternaldilemmaand

irrelevantbecausetheywereoutsideItaly’scapacitytoaffect.Itwasnoaccident

thatthediscussionsgrewmorebanalasthecircleofparticipantsexpanded.



TheprocedurefollowedthatoftheQuirinale.Therewasfirstaprivate

meetingbetweenPrimeMinisterColomboandNixon,attendedonlyby

interpreters(partofthetimeIsatinasnote‐taker).Itwasfollowedbyavery

largemeetingofpracticallytheentireofficialpartyoneachside.Theprivate

meetingwasneededtopretendthattheItalianPrimeMinisterhasexecutive

authoritycomparabletotheUnitedStatesPresidentoreventheBritishPrime

Minister.Buthehas not,exceptintherarestofcircumstances.ItalianPrime

Ministersarechairmenofacoalition ofmanyautonomousforces;theyreflecta

politicalequilibrium,notanexecutiveauthority.Theyproceednot bydecisionbut

bycompromise.InthisrespecttheItaliangovernmentisrathersimilartothe

Japanese,thoughitismorelikelytosplititsdifferencesthanto resolvethemby

consensus.AndColombo,inanyevent,wasclearlyaninterimfigure.Hewasa

facadebehindwhichthemuchmorepowerfulMorowaspreparinginhisindirect,

almostimperceptiblemannerthefundamentalchangesthatweretobringthe

CommunistPartyclosetotheseatsofpowerwhiletheChristianDemocratswere

seekingtopullitsrevolutionarysting.Thesessionwasrescuedfromtotal

irrelevancewhenthePresidentwastoldthatsomeofthehostagesofthe

hijackingthathadtriggeredtheJordancrisis(seeChapterXV)werepassing

throughRome.OnthespurofthemomentitwasdecidedthatNixonand

Colomboshouldhelicoptertotheairporttoexpresstheirsatisfactionatthe

rescue—leavingtheirassociatestocontinueinamicablesocialbanter.



Allthesemeetingsweresqueezedintoonemorningbecausetheschedulers

hadarrangedforavisittotheVaticanintheafternoon,whencethePresident

proposedtodepartfortheSixthFleet.Thisledtoaseriesofincidentsthat

unintentionallyletlooseoneofNixon’sobsessionsandcausedunending

discomfituretotheWhiteHousestaff.



ThePresidentofItalygavealuncheoninthetowerroomoftheQuirinale

Palace,overlookingthelushroofsandbeautifullyproportionedsquaresofthe

eternalCity.Inthisglorioussetting,becauseofthePresident’stightschedule,an

exquisitemealwasservedinaboutfifty‐fiveminutes—provingtoNixonthatone

ofhisobsessionswasclearlycapableoffulfillment.Fornearlytwoyearshis

associateshadheardhimcomplainabouttheineffableboredomofstatedinners.

HehadcajoledandthreatenedtospeeduptheservingofWhiteHousemealsin

ordertoreducethetimehehadtospendinsmalltalkwithhisvisitors.Hehad

givenpersonalattentiontothosecoursesthatexpeditedservice,andthosethat

mightbeeliminatedaltogether.Onsomeoccasionshehadevenarrangedforthe

interpretertoarrivelate,asameansofcuttingdownthetimeforconversation.

Butthefastestservicehehadeverattained,evenunderthemercilessproddingof

Haldeman—theworldrecordforWhiteHousedinners,sotospeak—wasanhour

andtwentyminutes.TheQuirinaleluncheonsetanewstandardthathenever

permittedtheWhiteHousestafftoforget.Alas,likemanyRomanachievements,

itprovedimpossible toemulate.EvenHaldemancouldnotsucceedinreducing

theWhiteHouseservicebymorethananothertenminutes.TheQuirinale

retainedthespeed‐in‐servingchampionshipbyagoodfifteenminutes, tothe

perpetualandvocalannoyanceofthePresident.



ThevisittotheVaticanprovidedanopportunityforareviewofthe

internationalsituationwithoneofthemostsensitiveandthoughtfulmenI

encounteredinmypublicservice:PopePaulVI.TheHolyFatherheadedaChurch

thrustintofermentbythetremendousreformsofhispredecessor.ButJohnXXIII

haddiedaftershakinguptheexistingframework;hehadnotyetsettledonthe

ultimatedirectionhischangeswouldtake.ThiswaslefttoPaulVI.Hehadserved

intheVaticandiplomaticserviceformanyyears;heunderstoodverywellthat

changecangainitsownmomentumandtransmutetheintentionsofreformers.

Saintsprevailbythepurityoftheirmotives;institutionsaresustainedbydurable

standards.PopePaulVIinmanywayssymbolizedthetravailofhisera.Better

thanalmostanyleadingfigureIencountered,heunderstoodthemoraldile mmas

ofaperiodinwhichtyrannymarchedunderthebannersoffreedom,andhow

“reform”rantheriskofcreatingsoullessbureaucracies.Hestruggledtoretaina

marginforconscienceandhumandignity.Hefeltdeeplytheanguishofatimein

needofbothrapidtransformationandenduringmoralverities.Althoughhe

yearnedforpeace,itwasneveratthepriceofjustice.PopePaulwasnotfreeof

foreboding,buthewastoosustainedbyfaithtogiveintohispremonitions.He

struggledtoeasesufferinginaworldinsomewaystoogrossforhissubtle

intelligenceandsensitivity,makinghimreluctanttotacklefrontallysomeofthe

trendsheunderstoodonlytoowell.Ineverwasinhispresencewithoutbeing

movedandhumbledbytheincommensurabilitybetweenthetimeframesof

politicalleadersconcernedwiththeattainableandthatofaninstitution

committedtotheeternal.



PopePaulhadwide andinformedknowledgeofinternationalaffairs.He

andNixonreviewedtheworldwithgeneralagreement.AtonepointNixonwas

waxingeloquentabouttheleftwardtrendofpriestsinLatinAmerica.TheHoly

Fatherinterruptedhimgently,withasmile:“Asamatteroffact,Mr.President,

thisisevenmoreofaproblemforusthanitisforyou.”



ThevisittotheVaticanledto oneofthosescenesthatarecomicin

retrospectbutmortifyingwhenexperienced.Ouradvancemenhadconceivedthe

extraordinaryideathatthePresidentshouldleavefortheSixthFleetdirectlyfrom

St.Peter’ssquareinaUSmilitaryhelicopter.TheCuria,feelingthatthis

representedenoughmartialtrappingsforoneday,tactfullysuggestedthatthe

SecretaryofDefensenotbeincludedinthegeneralaudiencethattheHolyFather

wouldoffertothemembersofthePresident’spartyafterhisprivateaudience

withNixon.Theschedulewasmadeaccordingly,andMelLairdwasnotwiththe

groupthatengagedinseparatetalkswhilethePopeandNixonweresecluded.

However,toexcludeapracticingpoliticianofLaird’singenuityfromapapal

audiencerequiredmorethanthedistributionofaprintedschedule.Astheofficial