Neamen D. Microelectronics: Circuit Analysis and Design
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to the many students I have taught over the years who have helped
in the evolution of this text. Their enthusiasm and constructive criticism have been
invaluable, and their delight when they think they have found an error their pro-
fessor may have made is priceless. I also want to acknowledge Professor Hawkins,
Professor Fleddermann, and Dr. Ed Graham of the University of New Mexico who
have taught from the third edition and who have made excellent suggestions for
improvement.
I want to thank the many people at McGraw-Hill for their tremendous support.
To Raghu Srinivasan, publisher, and Lora Neyens, development editor, I am grateful
for their encouragement and support. I also want to thank Mr. John Griffith for his
many constructive suggestions. I also appreciate the efforts of project managers who
guided the work through its final phase toward publication. This effort included gen-
tly, but firmly, pushing me through proofreading.
Let me express my continued appreciation to those reviewers who read the orig-
inal manuscript in its various phases, a focus group who spent an entire precious
weekend discussing and evaluating the original project, and the accuracy checkers
who worked through the original examples, exercises, and problems to minimize any
errors I may have introduced. My thanks also go out to those individuals who have
continued to review the book prior to new editions being published. Their contribu-
tions and suggestions for continued improvement are incredibly valuable.
xx Preface
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Preface xxi
REVIEWERS FOR THE FOURTH EDITION
Doran Baker
Utah State University
Marc Cahay
University of Cincinatti
Richard H. Cockrum
California State University, Pomona
Norman R. Cox
Missouri University of Science and
Technology Engineering
Stephen M. Goodnick
Arizona State University
Rongqing Hui
University of Kansas
Syed K Islam
University of Tennessee
Richard Kwor
University of Colorado, Colorado
Springs
Juin J. Liou
University of Central Florida
Sannasi Ramanan
Rochester Institute of Technology
Ron Roscoe
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
John Scalzo
Louisiana State University
Mark J. Wharton
Pennsylvania State University
Weizhong Wang
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Donald A. Neamen
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Prologue
Prologue to
Electronics
When most of us hear the word electronics, we think of televisions, laptop computers,
cell phones, or iPods. Actually, these items are electronic systems composed of sub-
systems or electronic circuits, which include amplifiers, signal sources, power sup-
plies, and digital logic circuits.
Electronics is defined as the science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum,
or semiconductor. (Note that the charge motion in a metal is excluded from this
definition.) This definition was used early in the 20th century to separate the field of
electrical engineering, which dealt with motors, generators, and wire communica-
tions, from the new field of electronic engineering, which at that time dealt with
vacuum tubes. Today, electronics generally involves transistors and transistor
circuits. Microelectronics refers to integrated circuit (IC) technology, which can
produce a circuit with multimillions of components on a single piece of semicon-
ductor material.
A typical electrical engineer will perform many diverse functions, and is likely
to use, design, or build systems incorporating some form of electronics. Conse-
quently, the division between electrical and electronic engineering is no longer as
clear as originally defined.
BRIEF HISTORY
The development of the transistor and the integrated circuit has led to remarkable
electronic capabilities. The IC permeates almost every facet of our daily lives, from
instant communications by cellular phone to the automobile. One dramatic example
of IC technology is the small laptop computer, which today has more capability than
the equipment that just a few years ago would have filled an entire room. The cell
phone has shown dramatic changes. It not only provides for instant messaging, but
also includes a camera so that pictures can be instantly sent to virtually every point
on earth.
A fundamental breakthrough in electronics came in December 1947, when the
first transistor was demonstrated at Bell Telephone Laboratories by William
Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. From then until approximately 1959,
the transistor was available only as a discrete device, so the fabrication of circuits
required that the transistor terminals be soldered directly to the terminals of other
components.
In September 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments demonstrated the first
integrated circuit fabricated in germanium. At about the same time, Robert Noyce of
Fairchild Semiconductor introduced the integrated circuit in silicon. The develop-
ment of the IC continued at a rapid rate through the 1960s, using primarily bipolar
transistor technology. Since then, the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transis-
tor (MOSFET) and MOS integrated circuit technology have emerged as a dominant
force, especially in digital integrated circuits.
I
I
1
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2 Prologue I Prologue to Electronics
Figure PR1.1 Schematic of an electronic circuit with two input signals: the dc power
supply input, and the signal input
Since the first IC, circuit design has become more sophisticated and the inte-
grated circuit more complex. Device size continues to shrink and the number of
devices fabricated on a single chip continues to increase at a rapid rate. Today, an IC
can contain arithmatic, logic, and memory functions on a single semiconductor chip.
The primary example of this type of integrated circuit is the microprocessor.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DEVICES
In a passive electrical device, the time average power delivered to the device over
an infinite time period is always greater than or equal to zero. Resistors, capacitors,
and inductors, are examples of passive devices. Inductors and capacitors can store
energy, but they cannot deliver an average power greater than zero over an infinite
time interval.
Active devices, such as dc power supplies, batteries, and ac signal generators,
are capable of supplying particular types of power. Transistors are also considered to
be active devices in that they are capable of supplying more signal power to a load
than they receive. This phenomenon is called amplification. The additional power in
the output signal is a result of a redistribution of ac and dc power within the device.
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
In most electronic circuits, there are two inputs (Figure PRl.1).One input is from a
power supply that provides dc voltages and currents to establish the proper biasing
for transistors. The second input is a signal. Time-varying signals from a particular
source very often need to be amplified before the signal is capable of being “useful.”
For example, Figure PR1.l shows a signal source that is the output of a compact disc
system. The output music signal from the compact disc system consists of a small
time-varying voltage and current, which means that the signal power is relatively
small. The power required to drive the speakers is larger than the output signal from
the compact disc, so the compact disc signal must be amplified before it is capable of
driving the speakers in order that sound can be heard.
Other examples of signals that must be amplified before they are capable of
driving loads include the output of a microphone, voice signals received on earth
from an orbiting manned shuttle, video signals from an orbiting weather satellite, and
the output of an electrocardiograph (EKG). Although the output signal can be larger
than the input signal, the output power can never exceed the dc input power. There-
fore, the magnitude of the dc power supply is one limitation to the output signal
response.
Signal
source
dc
voltage
source
Amplifier Load
CD player
Low
signal
power
High
signal
power
Speakers
dc power
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Prologue I Prologue to Electronics 3
Time
Time
Logic 0
0
Logic 1
v(t)
v(t)
V
H
V
L
(a) (b)
Figure PR1.2 Graphs of analog and digital signals: (a) analog signal versus time and
(b) digital signal versus time
The analysis of electronic circuits, then, is divided into two parts: one deals with
the dc input and its circuit response, and the other deals with the signal input and the
resulting circuit response. Dependent voltage and current sources are used to model
the active devices and to represent the amplification or signal gain. In general,
different equivalent circuit models must be used for the dc and ac analyses.
DISCRETE AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
In this text, we will deal principally with discrete electronic circuits, that is, circuits
that contain discrete components, such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors. We
will focus on the types of circuits that are the building blocks of the IC. For example,
we will look at the various circuits that make up the operational amplifier, an impor-
tant IC in analog electronics. We will also discuss various logic circuits used in
digital ICs.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
Analog signals
The voltage signal shown graphically in Figure PR1.2(a) is called an analog signal.
The magnitude of an analog signal can take on any value within limits and may vary
continuously with time. Electronic circuits that process analog signals are called
analog circuits. One example of an analog circuit is a linear amplifier. A linear
amplifier magnifies an input signal and produces an output signal whose amplitude
is larger and directly proportional to the input signal.
The vast majority of signals in the “real world” are analog. Voice communica-
tions and music are just two examples. The amplification of such signals is a large
part of electronics, and doing so with little or no distortion is a major consideration.
Therefore, in signal amplifiers, the output should be a linear function of the input. An
example is the power amplifier circuit in a stereo system. This circuit provides suffi-
cient power to “drive” the speaker system. Yet, it must remain linear in order to
reproduce the sound without distortion.
Digital signals
An alternative signal is at one of two distinct levels and is called a digital signal
(Figure PR1.2(b)). Since the digital signal has discrete values, it is said to be quan-
tized. Electronic circuits that process digital signals are called digital circuits.
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In many electronic systems, signals are processed, transmitted, and received in
digital form. Digital systems and signal processing are now a large part of electron-
ics because of the tremendous advances made in the design and fabrication of digital
circuits. Digital processing allows a wide variety of functions to be performed that
would be impractical using analog means. In many cases, digital signals must be
converted from and to analog signals. These signals need to be processed through
analog-to-digital (A/D) converters and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters. A signifi-
cant part of electronics deals with these conversions.
NOTATION
The following notation, summarized in Table PR1.1, is used throughout this text.
A lowercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as i
B
and
v
BE
, indicates a total
instantaneous value. An uppercase letter with an uppercase subscript, such as I
B
and
V
BE
, indicates a dc quantity. A lowercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as
i
b
and
v
be
, indicates an instantaneous value of a time-varying signal. Finally, an
uppercase letter with a lowercase subscript, such as I
b
and V
be
, indicates a phasor
quantity.
As an example, Figure PR1.3 shows a sinusoidal voltage superimposed on a dc
voltage. Using our notation, we would write
v
BE
= V
BE
+v
be
= V
BE
+ V
M
cos(ωt + φ
m
)
The phasor concept is rooted in Euler’s identity and relates the exponential function
to the trigonometric function. We can write the sinusoidal voltage as
v
be
= V
M
cos(ωt + φ
m
) = V
M
Re{e
j(ωt+φ
m
)
}=Re{V
M
e
jφ
m
e
jωt
}
4 Prologue I Prologue to Electronics
0
v
BE
w t
V
BE
V
m
f
m
v
be
ac variation
Figure PR1.3 Sinusoidal voltage superimposed on dc voltage, showing notation used
throughout this text
Table PR1.1 Summary of
notation
Variable Meaning
i
B
, v
BE
Total instantaneous
values
I
B
, V
BE
dc values
i
b
, v
be
Total instantaneous
ac values
I
b
, V
be
Phasor values
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where Re stands for “the real part of.” The coefficient of
e
jωt
is a complex number
that represents the amplitude and phase angle of the sinusoidal voltage. This complex
number, then, is the phasor of that voltage, or
V
be
= V
M
e
jφ
m
In some cases throughout the text, the input and output signals will be quasista-
tic quantities. For these situations, we may use either the total instantaneous notation,
such as i
B
and v
BE
, or the dc notation, I
B
and V
BE
.
SUMMARY
Semiconductor devices are the basic components in electronic circuits. The electrical
characteristics of these devices provide the controlled switching required for signal
processing, for example. Most electrical engineers are users of electronics rather than
designers of electronic circuits and ICs. As with any discipline, however, the basics
must be mastered before the overall system characteristics and limitations can be
understood. In electronics, the discrete circuit must be thoroughly studied and
analyzed before the operation, properties, and limitations of an IC can be fully
appreciated.
Prologue I Prologue to Electronics 5
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7
PART
Semiconductor Devices
and Basic Applications
7
1
1
In the first part of the text, we introduce the physical and electrical characteristics
of the major semiconductor devices. Various basic circuits in which these devices are
used are analyzed. This introduction will illustrate how the device characteristics are
utilized in switching, digital, and amplification applications.
Chapter 1 briefly discusses semiconductor material characteristics and then
introduces the semiconductor diode. Chapter 2 looks at various diode circuits
that demonstrate how the nonlinear characteristics of the diode itself are used in
switching and waveshaping applications. Chapter 3 introduces the metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), presents the dc analysis of MOS
transistor circuits, and discusses basic applications of this transistor. In Chapter 4, we
analyze and design fundamental MOS transistor circuits, including amplifiers.
Chapter 5 introduces the bipolar transistor, presents the dc analysis of bipolar
transistor circuits, and discusses basic applications of this transistor. Various bipolar
transistor circuits, including amplifiers, are analyzed and designed in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 considers the frequency response of both MOS and bipolar transistor cir-
cuits. Finally, Chapter 8 discusses the designs and applications of these basic
electronic circuits, including power amplifiers and various output stages.
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