Carson Ph., Mumford C. Hazardous Chemicals Handbook (Справочник по опасным химическим веществам)

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Table 16.16 Typical consent conditions for the discharge of industrial effluent to rivers and streams (UK)

Maximum allowed

Fishing streams

BOD (5 days at 20°) 20 mg/l

Suspended solids 30 mg/l

pH 5–9

Sulphide, as S 1 mg/l

Cyanide, as CN 0.1 mg/l

Arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc,

individually or in total 1 mg/l

Free chlorine 0,5 mg/l

Oils and grease 10 mg/l

Temperature 30°C

Non-fishing streams

BOD (5 days at 20°C) 40 mg/l

Suspended solids 40 mg/l

pH 5–9

Transparency of settled sample ≥100 mm

Sulphide, as S 1 mg/l

Cyanide, as CN 0.2 mg/l

Oils and grease 10 mg/l

Formaldehyde 1 mg/l

Phenols (as cresols) 1 mg/l

Free chlorine 1 mg/l

Tar none

Toxic metals, individually or in total 1 mg/l

Soluble solids 7500 mg/l

Temperature 32.5°C

Insecticides or radioactive material none

Sources

When classified in terms of handling and disposal methods, ‘solid wastes’ may comprise:

• liquids, e.g. in drums, slurries, sludges, thioxtropic solids, solids, as

• inert or ‘hazardous’ waste.

(The sources of solid wastes per se are summarized in Tables 16.1 and 16.4.) However, dealing

with any of them will involve some combination of the activities shown in Figure 16.2, i.e.

collection, segregation and identification, processing, recycling, transport and final disposal.

Effects

The effects from solid waste treatment and disposal depend upon the specific waste and the

methods employed. The major disposal methods, depending upon the quantity and nature of the

waste, are:

• disposal on land by landfill or land-raising;

• incineration, which requires air pollution control measures (Table 17.9) and a procedure for

ash disposal; energy recovery may be practised;

SOLID WASTES 509

510 CHEMICALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES AND IMPACT

Table 16.17 Guidelines for classification of contaminated soils: suggested range of values (ppm) on air dried soils

Parameter Typical Slight Contaminated Heavy Unusually

values for contamination contamination heavy

uncontaminated contamination

soils

pH (acid) 6–7 5–6 4–5 2–4 (<2)

pH (alkaline) 7–8 8–9 9–10 10–12 12

Antimony 0–30 30–50 50–100 100–500 500

Arsenic 0–30 30–50 50–100 100–500 500

Cadmium 0–1 1–3 3–10 10–50 50

Chromium 0–100 100–200 200–500 500–2500 2500

Copper (available) 0–100 100–200 200–500 500–2500 2500

Lead 0–500 500–1000 1000–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Lead (available) 0–200 200–500 500–1000 1000–5000 5000

Mercury 0–1 1–3 3–10 10–50 50

Nickel (available) 0–20 20–50 50–200 200–1000 1000

Zinc (available) 0–250 250–500 500–1000 1000–5000 5000

Zinc (equivalent) 0–250 250–500 500–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Boron (available) 0–2 2–5 5–50 50–250 250

Selenium 0–1 1–3 3–10 10–50 50

Barium 0–500 500–1000 1000–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Beryllium 0–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 50

Manganese 0–500 500–1000 1000–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Vanadium 0–100 100–200 200–500 500–2500 2500

Magnesium 0–500 500–1000 1000–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Sulphate 0–2000 2000–5000 5000–1.0% 1.0–5.0% 5.0%

Sulphur (free) 0–100 100–500 500–1000 1000–5000 5000

Sulphide 0–10 10–20 20–100 100–500 500

Cyanide (free) 0–1 1–5 5–50 50–100 100

Cyanide 0–5 5–25 25–250 250–500 500

Ferricyanide 0–100 100–500 500–1000 1000–5000 5000

Thiocyanide 0–10 10–50 50–100 100–500 2500

Coal tar 0–500 500–1000 1000–2000 2000–1.0% 1.0%

Phenol 0–2 2–5 5–50 50–250 250

Toluene extract 0–5000 5000–1.0% 1.0–5.0% 5.0–25.0% 25.0%

Cyclohexane extract 0–2000 2000–5000 5000–2.0% 2.0–10% 10.0%

• recycling, a procedure now promoted – either by primary or secondary routes;

• pyrolysis – yielding useful by-products.

Any hazard which land deposition may create requires assessment with regard to the risk of injury

or impairment of health to persons or animals, damage to vegetation, pollution of controlled

waters including aquifers – either directly or because of water run-off, and of long-term accumulation,

e.g. of heavy metals or persistent chemicals.

Landfill disposal of certain categories of solid waste may result in gas generation, mainly

methane, and a highly polluted leachate. The methane may be drawn off, to avoid a flammable

hazard on- or off-site. The leachate is pumped off for treatment.

A summary of the potential hazards associated with toxic waste deposition on land is given in

Table 16.18.

Reuse

Secondary recycle

Primary

recycle

Primary

recycle

Waste producer

Treat

on-site

Store

on-site

Dispose

on-site

Site boundary

Convey

Treat

off-site

Convey

Store

off-site

Dispose

off-site

Figure 16.2

Three basic techniques – treatment, storage, conveyance – to effect recycle or disposal of ‘solid’ waste either

on- or off-site.

Table 16.18 Potential hazards from toxic waste deposition

Air pollution Dust, effluvia, smoke and fume, odour

Toxic or flammable gas generation

Land pollution Gross amenity damage

Undermining of site stability

Sterilization of surrounding land due to heavy metals

pH changes etc.

Permanent ‘land contamination’

Water pollution Deposited material or percolate escapes either by surface run-off or by underground

movement, threatening streams, rivers, aquifers or the sea

Direct ‘poisoning’ or eutrophication

SOLID WASTES 511

Chemicals and the environment:

monitoring and protection

Legislative control

Comprehensive pollution control legislation exists in most developed countries and there is increasing

conformity within the EC.

The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1990

In the UK the Environmental Protection Act 1990 established an interlocking framework for

pollution control. Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) introduced a new approach with waste

minimization at its centre and a commitment to higher environmental standards. The latter is

based upon selection of the Best Practical Environmental Option (BPEO), i.e.:

the option which in the context of releases from a prescribed process, provides the most

benefit or least damage to the environment as a whole, at acceptable cost, in the long term

as well as the short term.

The reform of waste disposal aims to minimize waste generation and maximize recycling.

Under Part 1 of EPA 90, an IPC system controls emissions to air, land and water for the most

polluting industrial and similar processes. All operators of prescribed processes, e.g. fuel and

power, minerals, waste disposal and chemical, require prior authorization. They are required to

use BATNEEC, the Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost:

• for preventing the release of substances prescribed for any environmental medium, or where

that is not practicable by such means;

• for reducing the release of such substances to a minimum and for rendering harmless any such

substances which are released;

• for rendering harmless any other substances which might cause harm if released into any

environmental medium.

Any authorization may contain specific conditions with details on how BATNEEC is to be

achieved, e.g.:

the mode of operation of the plant; the pollution abatement technology to be used; and,

explicit limits on the amount and concentration of substances which may be discharged.

Some aspects of the process may not be covered explicitly by conditions, but there remains a

residual duty on the operator to prevent or minimize the release of prescribed substances by the

use of BATNEEC.

Local authority control of air pollution covers a second tier of less-polluting processes. Incinerators

for waste chemicals, or waste plastic arising from their manufacture, and other waste incinerators

dependent upon size are, however, subject to both the BATNEEC and BPEO requirements under

the IPC regime.

Any IPC application will include, in addition to details of the operator:

• A description of the prescribed process.

• A list of prescribed substances, and other substances which are potentially environmentally

harmful, used in or resulting from the process. The quantities that might be released with

control technologies in place.

• Details of any proposed release of prescribed substances and an assessment of the environmental

consequences of emissions. (For local authorities air pollution controlled processes this applies

only to atmospheric emissions.)

• Information to show that BATNEEC is to be applied; a description of techniques for preventing,

minimizing and rendering harmless the emissions. How these techniques will be monitored.

• Proposals for monitoring the release of such substances and the environmental consequences.

It must include an assessment to demonstrate that the process represents the BPEO.

Part II of EPA 90 deals with waste disposal, handling and management. The provisions impose

duties on the producers of waste to ensure the safe disposal. There are strong licensing powers for

local authorities, with continuing responsibilities for licensees to monitor and maintain sites after

closure.

The Clean Air Act 1993 provides a comprehensive control mechanism for the protection of the

environment from smoke, dust and fumes. The 1993 Act consolidates the previous provisions of

the 1956 and 1968 Clean Air Acts.

Section 1 of the Act prohibits:

dark smoke emissions from a chimney of any building

dark smoke emissions from a chimney serving the furnace of a fixed boiler or industrial

plant.

The Dark Smoke (Permitted Periods) Regulations, give details on circumstances and time limits

when dark smoke is allowed.

Section 2 of this Act prohibits dark smoke from any industrial or trade premises (there is no

requirement under Section 2 for the dark smoke to be emitted from a chimney).

The Water Industry Act 1991 and Water Resources Act 1991

The disposal of aqueous-based wastes, i.e. liquid effluents, is regulated in part by the Water

Industry Act 1991 and the Water Resources Act 1991.

The discharge of any trade effluent into a public sewer requires a specific consent from the

sewerage undertaker. If granted, conditions are attached to the consent relating to which sewer,

flowrates and composition (see Table 16.15), metering of flowrate, and possibly automatic monitoring.

For Special Category Effluents, e.g. mercury, pesticides, chlorinated organics, as listed in Schedule

1 of the Trade Effluents (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1989 (Table 17.1),

agreement must also be obtained from the Environment Agency.

LEGISLATIVE CONTROL 513

514 CHEMICALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Discharge to ‘controlled waters’ is controlled under the Water Resources Act 1991. These

waters are defined and generally include territorial waters, coastal waters, inland waters and

ground water. If the discharge is from a prescribed process, and of a prescribed substance under

the Environmental Protection Act 1990, consent for discharge is required under an IPC authorization.

All other discharges require consent from the Environment Agency under the Water Resources

Act. Such consent is subject to conditions as to composition, flowrate, measures to minimize

pollution, etc. A specimen consent form is given in Figure 17.1. Schedule 5 of the regulations

details the prescribed substances (Red List). Where a discharge contains more than the stated

amount of a prescribed substance (Table 17.2) it cannot be released to water without an authorization

from the Environment Agency.

NATIONAL RIVERS AUTHORITY

WATER RESOURCES ACT 1991 – CONSENT TO DISCHARGE

Reference number ........................................................................................................................................................

The National Rivers Authority, in pursuance of its powers under the above mentioned Act, HEREBY GIVES

CONSENT to the discharge described hereunder subject to the terms and conditions set out below.

Name and Address of Applicant: ................................................................................................................................

Date of Application: ................................................................................................................................

Date of Consent: ................................................................................................................................

Description of discharge: ................................................................................................................................

Type: ................................................................................................................................

From: ................................................................................................................................

To: ................................................................................................................................

National Grid Reference of

Discharge Point: ................................................................................................................................

This consent shall not be taken as providing a statutory defence against a charge of pollution in respect of any

poisonous, noxious or polluting constituents not specified herein.

......................................................................................................................................................................................

Conditions

1. General

2. As to Outlet

3. As to Volume Discharged to watercourse

4. As to Discharge composition

NRA Region: ................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

NRA Authorized Signature: ................................................................................................................................

Figure 17.1

Typical consent form

Whereas the Red List was produced by the UK government in 1989, and includes the most

harmful and polluting substances, the EC in Directive 76/464/EEC introduced Black and Grey

Lists, referred to in the Directive as Lists 1 and 2, respectively. National governments are required

to eliminate pollution by the substances blacklisted and to reduce pollution by those in the Grey

List. The 129 substances in the Black List were selected mainly on the basis of their toxicity,

persistence and accumulation in living organisms and in sediment. They are generally considered

to be more dangerous than those on the Grey List and are to be controlled by authorization in

Table 17.1 Prescribed substances

Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin and isodrin

Arsenic

Atrazine

Azinphos-ethyl

Azinphos-methyl

Boron

Cadmium and its compounds

Carbon tetrachloride

Chloroform

Chromium

Copper

Cyanide

Cyfluthrin

DDT

1,2-Dichloroethane

Dichlorvos

Dioxins

Endosulfan

Fenitrothion

Fenthion

Flucofuron

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD)

Hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane and related compounds)

Iron

Lead

Malathion

Mercury and its compounds

Nickel

Parathion

Parathion-methyl

PCSDs

Pentachlorophenol (PCP)

Perchloroethylene

Permethrin

pH outside the range 5.5 to 9.0

Polychlorinated biphenyls

Simazine

Sulcofuron

Tetrachloroethylene

Tributyltin compounds

Trichlorobenzene

Trichloroethane

Trichloroethylene

Trifluralin

Triphenyltin compounds

Vanadium

Zinc

LEGISLATIVE CONTROL 515

516 CHEMICALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

accordance with European Community limit values or quality objectives to be set in daughter

Directives on specific substances. They can be divided into the families shown in Table 17.3. The

Grey List comprises the families of materials shown in Table 17.4. The contents of the Grey List

may be added to the Black List in due course, and may thus be subject to the same tight controls.

Pesticides are also one of the main sources of inland water pollution and the EC has set limits

for pesticide levels in surface waters. Most pesticides in surface waters come from diffuse losses

soon after spraying. High levels of other specific pesticides often result from farmyard spillages.

Any person using a pesticide must take all reasonable precautions to protect the health of human

beings, creatures and plants, to safeguard the environment, and in particular to avoid pollution of

water. They should be given instruction, training and guidance in the safe, efficient and humane

use of pesticides and be competent in the duties they are called upon to perform. They are not

permitted to combine or mix two or more pesticides nor use a pesticide in conjunction with an

Table 17.2 The Red List maximum discharge levels above which prior authorization is required

Prescribed substances Amount released above

background in any 12 month

period (grams)

Mercury and its compounds 200 (expressed as metal)

Cadmium and its compounds 1000 (expressed as metal)

All isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane 20

All isomers of DDT 5

Pentachlorophenol and its compounds 350 (expressed as PCP)

Hexachlorobenzene 5

Hexachlorobutadiene 20

Aldrin 2

Dieldrin 2

Endrin 1

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 1

Dichlorvos 0.2

1,2-Dichloroethane 2000

All isomers of trichlorobenzene 75

Atrazine* 350

Simazine* 350

Tributyltin compounds 4 (expressed as TBT)

Triphenyltin compounds 4 (expressed as TPT)

Trifluralin 20

Fenitrothion 2

Azinphos-methyl 2

Malathion 2

Endosulfan 0.5

* Where both atrazine and simazine are released, the figure in aggregate is 350 grams.

Table 17.3 The Black List substances prohibited from discharge to ground water

Organohalogenated compounds and substances which may form such compounds in the aquatic environment

Organophosphorus compounds

Organotin compounds

Substances which possess carcinogenic properties

Mercury and its compounds

Cadmium and its compounds

Persistent mineral oils and hydrocarbons of petroleum origin

Persistent synthetic substances which may float, remain in suspension or sink and interfere with any use of the waters

adjuvant except under authorized circumstances. A list of pesticides and pesticide residues as

defined by EC Directive 90/642/EEC as amended by 94/30/EC is given in Table 17.5. Limits are

to be set by subsequent Directives in due course.

Waste management

Under the EPA 90 a person shall not:

• deposit ‘controlled waste’, or knowingly cause or permit its deposit;

• treat, keep or dispose of controlled waste or permit it, etc.;

except under, and in accordance with, a waste management licence. Controlled waste is household,

industrial, commercial or any such waste.

Extra duties are imposed on the producers of ‘Special Waste’, i.e. a waste that is on the

European Hazardous Waste list reproduced in Table 17.6 and if it has one or more of the hazardous

properties listed in Table 17.7 (reproduced from Part 2 of Schedule 2 of the Special Waste

Regulations, 1996). Also Special Waste is any Controlled Waste which has one of the listed

properties. Extra requirements are detailed for the safe transfer and management of such waste.

Section 34 of EPA 90 imposes a ‘cradle to grave’ philosophy for waste management. This

places a duty of care upon anyone who has ‘control’ of controlled waste, i.e. importers, producers,

Table 17.4 The Grey List substances for which authorization is required prior to discharge

Biocides and their derivatives not appearing in the black list

Substances which have a deleterious effect on the taste and/or smell of the products for human consumption derived from

the aquatic environment

Toxic or persistent organic compounds of silicon

Inorganic compounds of phosphorus and elemental phosphorus

Non-persistent mineral oils and hydrocarbons of petroleum origin

Cyanides, fluorides

Substances which have an adverse effect on the oxygen balance, particularly ammonia, nitrates

The following metalloids and metals and their compounds:

Antimony

Arsenic

Barium

Beryllium

Boron

Chromium

Cobalt

Copper

Lead

Molybdenum

Nickel

Selenium

Silver

Tellurium

Thallium

Tin

Titanium

Uranium

Vanadium

Zinc

WASTE MANAGEMENT 517

518 CHEMICALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Table 17.5 Pesticides and pesticide residues

Pesticide Residue

Aldrin and dieldrin singly or combined, expressed as dieldrin (HEOD)

2-Aminobutane 2-aminobutane

Aminotriazole aminotriazole

Azinphos-methyl sum of azinphos-methyl and azinphos-ethyl

Bitertanol bitertanol

Captafol captafol

Captan sum of captan and folpet

Carbaryl carbaryl

Carbendazim carbendazim (from use of benomyl, thiophanate-methyl and carbendazim)

Carbon disulphide carbon disulphide

Carbon tetrachloride carbon tetrachloride

Carbophenothion sum of carbophenothion, its sulphoxide and its sulphone, expressed as carbophenothion

Chlordane (1) for products of animal origin: sum of cis- and trans-isomers and oxychlordane

expressed as chlordane;

(2) for cereals, fruit and vegetables: sum of cis- and trans-isomers expressed as

chlordane

Chlorfenvinphos sum of E- and Z-isomers of chlorfenvinphos

Chlorpyrifos-methyl chlorpyrifos-methyl

DDT sum of pp’-DDT, op’-DDT, pp’-TDE and pp’-DDE expressed as DDT

Diazinon diazinon

1,2-Dibromoethane 1,2-dibromoethane

Dichlofluanid dichlofluanid

Dichlorvos dichlorvos

Dicofol Dicofol

Diflubenzuron diflubenzuron

Dimethipin dimethipin

Dimethoate dimethoate

Dithiocarbamates alkylenbisdithiocarbamates and alkylthiuramdisulphides and

dialkyldithiocarbamates determined and expressed as carbon disulphide (CS

)

Endosulfan sum of alpha- and beta-isomers and of endosulfan sulphate, expressed as endosulfan

Endrin endrin

Ethion ethion

Etrimfos sum of etrimfos, its oxygen analogue and

6-ethoxy-2-ethyl-4-hydroxypyrimidine

Fenitrothion fenitrothion

Fluazifop fluazifop and esters (including conjugates) of haloxyfop, expressed as free acid

Fluorochloridone fluorochloridone

Haloxyfop haloxyfop and esters (including conjugates) of haloxyfop, expressed as free acid

Hexachlorobenzene hexachlorobenzene

(HCB)

Hexachlorocyclohexane hexachlorocyclohexane

(HCH) alpha-isomer

beta-isomer

gamma-isomer

Heptachlor sum of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide, expressed as heptachlor

Hydrogen cyanide cyanides expressed as hydrogen cyanide

Hydrogen phosphide phosphides expressed as hydrogen phosphide

Imazalil imazalil

Inorganic bromide determined and expressed as total bromine from all sources

Ioxynil ioxynil

Iprodione sum of iprodione and all metabolites containing 3,5-dichloroaniline moiety, expressed

as iprodione

Malathion sum of malathion and malaoxon, expressed as malathion

Mercury compounds determined as total mercury and expressed as mercury

Methacrifos methacrifos

Methyl bromide bromomethane

Mevinphos sum of cis- and trans-mevinphos