Dixon R.M.W., Aikhenvald Alexandra Y. The Amazonian Languages (Cambridge Language Surveys)
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THE
AMAZONIAN
LANGUAGES
The Amazon Basin
is
arguably both the least-known and the most
complex linguistic region
in
the world today.
Itis
thehome
of
sorne 300
languages belonging to around
20
language familíes, plus more than a
dozen genetic isolates, and
manyof
these languages (often incom-
pletely documented and mostly endangered) show properties that con-
stitute exceptions to received ideas about Hnguistic universals. This
book
is
the first to provide an overview
in
a single volume
of
this rich
and exciting linguistic area. The editors and contributors have sought
to
make their descriptions as
c1ear
and
accessible as possible,
in
arder
to provide a basis for further research
on
the structural characteristics
of
Amazonian languages and their gene tic and area! relationships, as
well
as a point
of
entry to important cross-Iinguistic
data
for the wider
constituency
of
theoreticallinguists.
R.
M.
W.
DIXON
and
ALEXANDRA
Y.
AIKHENVALD
are Directorand
Associate Director
of
the Research Centre
for
Linguistic Typology at
the Australian National University (the Research Centre
will
reJocate to
La Trabe University
in
Melboume from January 2000). Professor
Dixon's book publications inelude grammatical studies
of
the
Austra!~n
languages Dyirbal and
Yidiny,
of
Fijian and
of
English, as
well
a.s
The
Languages
of
Australia
(1980) and
Ergativity
(1994). One
of
his current projects
is
a grammar
of
Jarawara (Brazil). Professor
Aikhenvald has published 6 books and nearly
100
papers
in
Russian,
English, Portuguese and Yiddish, covering a range
of
subjects including
Berber,
Heb"rew,
Indo-European and Native South American languages.
Her monograph
Classifiers:
A Typology
of
Noun
Categorization
Devices
will
be
published
in
1999.
She is currentJy completing a full-Jength
grammar
of
Taríana.
CAMBRIDGE
LANGUAGE
SURVEYS
General Editors:
S.
R. Anderson
(Yale University)
1.
Bresnan
(Stanlord University)
B.
Comrie
(Max
Planck
lnstitutelor
Evolutionary Anthropology,
Leipzig)
W.
Dressler
(University 01 Vienna)
C. Ewen
(University 01 Leiden)
R.
Lass
(University 01 Cape Town)
D.
Lightfoot
(University 01 Maryland)
P.
H. Matthews
(University 01 Cambridge)
S.
Romaine
(Uníversity
olOxlord)
N.
V.
Smith
(University College London)
N.
Vincent
(University 01 Manchester)
This series otrers general accounts
of
the major language families
of
the world, with volumes organized either on a purely genetic basis
or
on a geographical basis, whichever yields the most convenient
and
intelligible grouping in each case.
Each volume compares and contrasts the typological features
of
the lang¡ªages it deals with.
It
also treats the relevant genetic
relationships, historical development
and
sociolinguistic issues
arising from their role and use in the world today. The books are
in tended for Iinguists from undergraduate
level
upwards, but no
special knowledge
of
the languages under consideration
is
assumed.
Volumes such as those on Australia
and
the Amazon Basin are also
of
wider relevance, as the future
of
the languages and their speakers
raises important social and polítical issues.
Already published:
The languages
of
Australia
R
M.
W.
Dixon
The
languages
of
the Soviet Union
Bernard Comrie
The Mesoamerican Indian languages
Jorge A. Suárez
The Papuan languages
of
New Guinea
WiIliam
A.
Foley
Chinese
Jerry Norman
The
languages
of
Japan
Masayoshi Shibatani
Pidgins
and
creoles (Volume
1:
Theory
and
Structure; Volume II:
Reference survey)
John
A.
Ho/m
The Indo-Aryan languages
Colin Masica
The
Celtíc languages edited by Donald MacAulay
The Romance languages
Rebecca Posner
The Korean language
Ho-Min So/m
fJ~J"O
z~~·
..
y
THE
AMAZONIAN
LANGUAGES
edited by
R.
M.
W.
DIXON
and
ALEXANDRA
y.
AIKHENVALD
Research Centre
for
Linguistic Typology
La
Trobe University, Melbourne
'.!
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY
PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid" Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo
Cambridge Universíty Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2
2RU,
UK
Published in the Unitcd States
of
America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridgo.org
Information on this title: www.eambridge.org/9780521570213
© Cambridge University Prcss 1999
This publication is in copyright. Subject lo statutory e¡¡ception
and
to
the provisions
of
relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction
of
any part may take place without
the writlen pcrmission
ofCambridge
Univcrsity Press.
F irst published 1999
Hardback version transferred
to
digital pfÍnting 2006
Digitally printed first paperback version 2006
A cala/ogue I'ecord fol'
Ihis
publica/ion is availab/e from the British Library
Library
of
Congress Cataloguing
in
Publication data
Amazonian languages
I
edited by
R,
M,
W.
Dixon and Alexandra
Y.
Aikhenvald.
p. cm.
~
(Cambridge language surveys)
¡neludes bibliographical referenees.
ISBN O
521
57021 2 (hardback)
1,
Indians
of
South America Amazon River Region Languages.
!.
Dixon, Robert M.
W.
11.
Aikhenvald,
A.
Y.
(Aleksandra
rurevna)
m.
Series.
PM5099.8.A48 1999
498
_.
de21 98-46270 CIP
ISBN-13 978-0-521-57021-3 hardback
ISBN-lO 0-521-57021-2 hardback
ISBN-13 978-0-521-57893-6 paperback
ISBN-lO 0-521-57893-0 paperback
CONTENTS
Lis!
o/
rnaps
page
xvii
Acknowledgements
xx
LiSl
o/
abbreviatioflS
xxi
Conventions /ollolVed
xxiv
Lis!
o/
comributors
xviii
Introduction
by
R. M.
W.
Dixon and Alexandra
Y.
Aikhenvald
I Cultural background 3
2 Linguistic diffusion 7
3 Genetic relationship
11
4 The punctuated equilibrium model
16
5 Org!nization
of
thís book
19
Bibliography 20
2
Carib
by Desmond
C.
Derbyshire
23
l Introduction
23
2 Phonology
26
2.1
Segmental
26
2.2 Phonotactícs and suprasegmentals
26
2.3
Morphophonology
28
3 Morphology, partíc\es and pronouns
:n
3.1
Inflectional morpho!ogy
31
3.!.1 Person-marking affixes on verbs, nouns,
32
adverbials and postpositions
3.1.2 Tense, aspect, mode and number
suffixes
on
37
verbs
3.1.3 Possession, tense and number
suffixes
on nouns
40
3.1.4 InflecHona! suffixes on locative postpositions
42
3.2 Derivational morphology
43
3.2, I Verb derivationa! affixes
44
3.2.2 Nominalizing affixes attached to verb stems to
45
form nouns
viii
Coments
Contents
ix
3.2.3
Some
adverbial derivations from
noun
and
verb
50
7.4
Constituent
order
98
98stems 7.5 Non-verbal clauses
3.3
The
particle word c1ass
53
7.6
Complex
sentences: relative c1auses,
complement
99
3.4
Pronouns
53
c1auses,
coordination,
pivot
and
switch-reference
4
Syntax
54
4.1
Main
clause
structuring
55
functions
4.2
Subordinate
c1ause
constructions
56
Bibliography
102
4.2.1
Nominalizations
56
4.2.2
Adverbializations
57
4 Tupí by Aryon D. Rodrigues 107
4.2.3
Postpositions
58
1
Introductíon
107
4.3 Ergativity
60
2 Pbonology
110
110
Bibliogmphy
61
2.1
Vowels
3
The
Arawak language family by
Alexandra
Y.
Aikbenvald
65
7.7
Grammatical
mean s used for
marking
díscourse
JOI
2.2
Consonants
112
2.3
Tone
114
I
~
1
Introduction:
the Arawak languages
and
their speakers
65
3
Grammatical
overview
114
1.1
Comparative
studies, genetic c1assification
and
73
4
Nouns
115
subgrouping
5
Pronouns
117
2
Pbonology
75
6
Verbs
118
2.1
Segmental
phonology
75
11
7
Demonstratives
120
2.2
Syllable structure, suprasegmentals
and
phonotactics
78
I
8
Questions
120
I
2.3
Morphophonology
79
9
Subordinate
clauses
121
121
3
Typological profile
80
10
Pivots
3.1
Word
structure
80
Bibliogfaphy
122
3.2
Morphological processes
80
3.3
Word
c1asses
81
5
Tupl-Guaraní by Cheryl Jensen
125
1254
Nominal
morphology
82
1
Introduction
4.1
Possession
82
2 Identification
of
Tupí-Guaraní
languages
128
4.2
Classífiers
and
genders
83
2.1
Distinguisbing characteristícs
of
Tupí-Guaraní
128
4.3
interrogatives, numbers,
adpositions
3
Proto-Tupí-Guaraní
pbonology
133
133
6
Verbalmorphology
85
3.1
Proto-
Tupí-Guaraní
phonemes
6.1
Classification
of
verbs
and
predicate
structure
86
3.2
Proto-
Tupí-Guaraní
allomorphs
134
6.2
Cross-referencing
and
split ergativity
87
3.3 Possible
Tupí-Guaraní
morphopbonemic
phenomena
135
6.3 Valency-changing derivations
90
3.3.1 Replacement
by
nasal
consonants
135
6.4
Other
verbal categories
93
3.3.2
Strategies for
the
loss
of
consonant
clusters
136
6.5
Noun
incorporatíon
95
formed
at
morpbeme
juncture
6.6
Relative
and
negative
markers
95
4 Phonological
changes
witbin
Tupí-Guaraní
137
1377
Syntax
96
4.1
Weakening
of
"'tJand
"'ts
7.1
Grammatical
relations
96
4.2
Palatalization
138
7.2
Noun
phrase
structure
96
4.3 Labializatíon
140
7.3 Comp1ex predica tes
and
serial verbs
97
4.4
Merger
of
*pwith
*w
141
Number
84
5
Closed
classes: personal pronouns, demonstratives,
85
languages
2.2
Subgroups
within
Tupí-Guaraní
129
x
Conlents
4.5
Final-consonant phenomena
4.5.\ Devoicing
4.5.2
Nasalization
4.5.3
Loss
4.6
Vowel
shift
5
Stems
5.1
Categories of stems
5.2
Stem
c\asses
6
Person markers
7
Nouns
7.1
Case marking
7.2
Possession
7.3
Noun composition
7.4
Indication of number
7.5
Noun phrases
7.6
Possession
c1asses
8
Postpositions
9
Verbs
9.1
Independent
verbs
9.2
Oblique-topicalized verbs
9.3
Serial
verb
constructions
9.4
Temporal subordinate
c1ause
constructions
9.5
Valency-changing devices
9.5.1
Causatives
9.5.2
Detransitivizers
9.5.3
Object incorporation
10
N ominalizations
11
Semantics
Bibliography
6
Macro-Je
by
Aryon
D.
Rodrigues
I
Historical survey
2
Distribution
3
Linguistic scholarshíp
4
Phonology
4J
Vocalic
systems
4.2
Consonan
tal
systems
4.3
Tone
5
Morphology
5.1
lnflection
for
contiguity of a determiner
5.2
Inflection ror possession
5.3
Number
\42
\42
143
143
144
146
\46
146
146
148
148
150
151
151
152
152
153
154
155
156
157
157
158
158
159
159
159
160
161
165
165
166
169
171
171
174
180
180
180
182
183
Contents
xi
5.4
Noun classification
\84
5.5
Agreement marking on the verb
185
6
Syntax
187
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Constituent order
in
declarative sentences
187
Adpositional phrases
188
Genitive phrases
190
Demonstrative phrases
192
Numeral phrases
192
Adjectival phrases
193
Ergativity
193
Valency-changing processes
195
6.8.1
Reflexives
and reciprocals
195
6.8.2
Ca usa
ti
vizatio n
195
Switch-reference
197
7
About the consistency
of
Macro-Je as a genetic grollp
198
7.1
A brief appraisal of the grammatical
affinity
198
7.2
Phonological equations
198
Bibliography
201
7
Tucano
by
Janet Barnes
207
1
Introduction
207
2
Phonology
209
2.1
1l
Syllable structllre
210
2.2
Segmental phonology
210
2.3
Nasalization
211
2.4
Accent
212
3
Morphology
212
3J
The verb
213
3.1.1
Evidentials
213
3.1.2
Aspect
214
3.1.3
Mood and modality
216
3.2
Pronouns
217
3.2.1
Personal pronouns
217
3.2.2
Possessive pronollns
218
3.3
Oassifiers
218
3.4
Specificity marker
219
3.5
Nouns
221
3.6
Adjectives
221
3.7
Negation
222
3.8
N ominalized
verbs
222
3.9
Switch-reference
223
4
SvntHx
224
269
xiii
xii
Contents
Contents
4.1
Time
and
location
224
10
Nambiquara by Ivan Lowe
4.2
Noun
phrase
225
1 Introduction
269
Bibliography
225
J
2
Phonology
271
8
Pano by Eugene
E.
Loos 227
1
Introduction
227
2
Phonology
230
2.1
Segmental phonology
230
2.2
Common
phonological variations
231
3
Grammar
234
3.1
Word classes
and
noun
phrase formatíon 234
3.1.1
Noun
phrase 235
3.1.2
Pronoun c1asses 235
3.1.3 Relative c1auses
236
3.1.4
Noun
phrase pluralization
236
3.2
Transitivity concord 236
3.2.1 Switch-reference 237
3.2.2 Adverbial suffix concord 239
3.2.3 Locative phrases
239
3.2.4
Ergative marking
240
3.3
Noun
incorporatíon
243
3.4 Verb formation
243
3.4.1 Verbroots
243
3.4.2 Suffixes
244
3.5
Mood
indicators
248
3.6 Deictics
248
Bibliography
249
9
Makú
by Silvana
and
Valteir Martins
251
I
Illtroduction
251
2.1
The
variants
of
phonemes
272
2.2
Syllable structure
272
2.3
Stress
272
2.4
Morphophonemics
272
3
Morphology
273
3.1
Verbs
274
3.1.1 Main verbs
274
3.1.2
Subordinate verbs
277
3.2 Adjectives
279
3.3
Nouns
280
3.4 Pronouns
283
3.5
Adverbs
283
3.6
Interjections
284
3.7
Ideophones
284
4
Syntax
284
4.1
Main c1auses
284
4.2 Subordinate c\auses
287
4.3
Clause coordination
288
4.4
Noun
phrases
289
4.5
ij
Nomina1izations
290
Bibliography
291
11
Arawá by R.
M.
W.
Dixon
293
1 Introduction
293
2
Phonology
295
3
Word c\asses
298
4 Noulls
298
2
Genetic classification
253
.5
Noull phrase structure
299
1
3
Phonology 255
6
Verbs
300
4
Word structure
257
5
Word classes
257
6 Nominal categories: possessíon, c1assifiers,
number
258
7 Verb structure 259
8
Valency-changing derivations 260
9
Incorporation
261
10
Grammatical relations
263
11
Negation
264
12
Syntax 265
13
Lexicon
265
7 Predicate structure
8
PronOUl1S
9
Demonstratives
and
interrogatives
10
Construction types
Bibliography
300
302
304
304
306
12
Small language families and ¡sola tes
in
Peru
by
Mary Ruth Wise
1
Illtroduction: the languages
and
families
2 Phonology
3
Morphology
307
307
312
318
Bibliography 266
~{
'j
3.1
Nominal morphology
319
l
xiv
Conteltts
3.1.1
Classifiers
319
3.1.2
Case
320
3.2
Pronouns
321
3.3
Adjectives
323
3.3.1
Comparative
and
superlative grades
323
3.4
Verbal morphology
324
4
Syntax
329
4.1
Constituent order
329
4.2
Relativizatíon
332
4.3
Subordinatíon
and
coreference/switch-reference
333
Bibliography
335
13
Other small families and isolates by Alexandm Y Aikhenvald
341
and
R. M.
W.
Dixon
1
Brazil
341
1.1
Yanomami
341
1.1.1
1.1.2
U.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
Phonology
345
Word structure
and
word
c1asses
346
Nominal categories
346
C1assifiers
347
Grammatical relations
348
Verb structure
349
Noun
incorporation
and
verb compounding
350
Syntax
350
1.2
Trumai by Raquel Guirardello
351
1.2.1
Phonology
352
1.2.2
Features
of
the
grammar
352
1.3
Mura-Piraba
353
1.3.1
1.3.2
lA
Jabutí
104.1
1.4.2
Phonology
354
Features
of
the
grammar
355
357
Phonology
357
Features
of
the grammar
357
1.5
Chapacura
family
358
1.5.1
PhonoJogy
359
1.5.2
Features
of
the grammar
359
1.6
Máku
361
1.7
Aikaná
and
Koaia
362
2
Bolivia
364
2.1
The
Tacana familv
364
365
2.1.2
Features
of
the
grammar
366
2.2
Isolates
367
Contents
xv
3
Colombia
369
3.1
Phonology
370
3.2
Morphology
372
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
Syntax
4
Venezuela
Word structure
and
typological profile
372
Nominal morphology
373
Grammatical relations
375
Verbal morphology
375
376
377
4.1
Phonology
377
4.2
Features
of
the
grammar
378
Bibliography
379
14
Areal diffusion and language contact
in
tbe
(~ana-Vaupés
basin,
385
north-west Amazonia by Alexandra
Y.
Aikhenvald
1
Areal diffusion in north-west Amazonia
385
2
Linguistic situation
in
the Ic;ana-Vaupés basin
386
2.1
Languages spoken
386
2.2
Cultural setting
and
language attitudes
388
2.3
Historical evidence
390
3
The
Vaupés regíon as a linguistic
afea
391
3.1
General observations
391
Phonological characteristics
394
3.3
Grammatical structure
396
3.3.1
Typological profile
and
word structure
396
3.3.2
Nominal morphology
397
3.3.3
Grammatical relations
403
3.3.4
Verbal morphology
and
predicaté structure
404
3.4
Syntax
and
discourse techniques
405
3.5
Semantics
406
4
Properties shared by languages
of
the
Icyana
and
Vaupés
406
region
4.1
Pitch accent
406
4.2
Topic-advan(.'Íng verbal derivatian
407
4.3
Possessíve classifiers
and
-ya-
possessive marker
409
4.4
Complex systems
of
classifiers
410
5
Conclusions
411
Bibliography
413
15
The Upper Xingu as au incipieut linguistic area by Lucy Seki
417
1
The Upper Xingu
and
its languages
417
l.l
Languages spoken
417
1.2
Historical background
419
xvi
Contents
1.3
The mobility
of
groups, language
105s
and
further
contacts
2 The Upper Xingu as a culture area
3 Linguistíc situatíon
4 lncipient areal diffusíon in the Upper Xingu
5 Conclusions
Bibliography
Index
01
authors
lndex ol/anguages and
/anguage
lami/ies
Subject index
MAPS
Carib languages with approximate locations
page
22
Arawak languages with approximate locations
66
Tupí languages with approximate locations
108
Tupí-Guaraní languages with approximate locations
126
Macro-Je languages with approximate locations 164
Tucano languages with approximate locations
208
Pano languages with approximate locations
228
Makú
languages
and
dialects with approximate locations
252
Nambiquara languages and dialects with approximate locations 268
Arawá languages
and
dialects with approximate locations 292
SmalllaQ1Juage families
and
¡solates
of
Peru with approximate
308
locations
Smalllanguage families and isolates
of
Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia 342
and
Venezuela with approximate locations
Languages
in
the Ic;ana-Vaupés Basin with approximate locations 384
Languages
of
the Upper Xingu with approximate locations 418