Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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Thisthenwasthemannerinwhichwemaintainedourmomentum,

culminatingin1971withPresidentNixon’sannouncementonOctober12ofa

May1972summitinMoscow.Ayearthathadstartedinstagnationhadseenthe

openingtoChina,thethawingoftherelationshipwithMoscow,theconclusionof

agreementsonBerlinandaccidentalwar,andthebreakthroughonSALT.Vietnam

couldbeincludedintheyear’ sprogress.Itstilldominatedthepassionsofmany,

butitwasnowlessanationalobsessionthanapainfullegacyonthewayto

resolution.Hanoicouldnothelpbutbeaffectedbytheknowledgethatitstwo

greatCommunistallieswereeachimprovingtheirrelationshipwithwashington

despitethewarinIndochina.Thiswasboundtoimproveournegotiatingposition.

Beyondthat,ourvariousinitiativesbegantodispelthenightmarethatVietnam

wouldsapthespiritandtheconfidenceofourpeople.Wehadshownthat

Americaremainedcapableofgreatenterpriseamidsttravail.Wecouldseeahead

ofustheprospectsforanewinternationalorderreflectingtherealitiesand

yearningsofourperiod,andachievedbyAmericanvisionanddedication.



AllthiswasdueinnotinconsiderabledegreetoNixon’sinsistence,withmy

help,onWhiteHousecontrolofforeignpolicy.In1971wetookovernotsimply

theplanningbutalsotheexecutionofmajorinitiatives.IhavestatedherethatI

donotconsiderthemethods employeddesirableintheabstract;certainly,they

shouldnotberegularlypursued.ButitisdifficultforaPresidenttomakenew

departuresthroughthe“system.”Thedepartmentsandagenciespreferto

operatebyconsensus.Theyliketomakepolicythroughapatternofclearances

thatobscureswhohasprevailed—andalsoanyclear‐cutdirection.Theytendto 

beattractedtothefashionable.Theyshunconf rontationwithoneanother,the

media,ortheCongress.Whenthwartedtheydonotshrink,however,from

politicalwarfareagainstthePresidentbyleaks,and,inextremecases,bythe

encouragementofCongressionalpressures.AllPresidentshavefoundnecessary

somewaytoavoidbeingstifledbybureaucraticinertiaintheguiseofclearance

procedures,orbyeconomicagenciespursuingobjectiveswithoutpolitical

guidance.NodoubtNixonwenttoextremesintryingtoachievedominance.

Thereweremanydedicatedmembersoftheagencieswhowouldhavebeen

willingtohelp.ButastheaccountsoftheChinainitiative,theSALTnegotiations,

andtheMiddleEasthaveshown,manyofourconceptionswouldhaverunup

againstestablishedwisdom.



ThatNixonchosetocircumventtheprocessratherthandisciplineit

reflectedhispersonality.Itdoesnotchangetheproblem,whichwouldbefaced

byanyinnovativePresident.AndNixondeservesgreatcreditfortoughdecisions

takeninthefaceofenormouspublicpressures;forhisstrategicgrasp;forhis

solitaryefforts;forhiscourageinrunningrisksnotonlyinwarbutalsoforpeace.

Hisadministrativeapproachwasweirdanditshumancostunattractive,yet

historymustalsorecordthefundamentalfactthatmajorsuccesseswere

achievedthathadprovedunattainablebyconventionalprocedures.



WehadnoillusionsaboutSovietmotivations.ButIdidnotacceptthen,nor

willInow,thepropositionthatwewereboundtobeoutmaneuveredbythe

Sovietsinapoliticalcontest.Indeed,thecontestcouldbesustaineddomestically

onlyifwewereunafraidtoexploretheprospectsofcoexistence.Onlythenwould

webeabletofacedownchallengesasaunitedpeople;noothercoursewould

enableustoholdouralliancestogether.WhethertheSovietswerepreparingfor

negotiationorconfrontation,ourtaskwasthesame:TheUnitedStateshadto

championpeacebutithadtomakesurethatthequestforpeacereflecteda

senseofjusticeanddidnotturnintoastampedeofunilateralconcessions.



Wewereusinganeraofnegotiationtoachieveourpurposesofsecuring

peaceanddefendingfreedom.AsIwrotetoNixoninreportingonmy

conversationwithGromykoonSeptember30:



WecanexpecttheSoviets,eveninthisnew“positive”line,tobepursuingtheirown

interests,drivinghardbargainsfortheirfriends,anddoingtheirnormalamountoftactical

elbowing.Buttheprospectsandinterplayofyourtwosummitmeetingsgiveususefulleverage.

Ifweplayourcardsright,wecanhopeforsomeconstructiveresults.



<<Contents>>

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****



XXI



TheTilt:

TheIndiaPakistanCrisisof1971



OriginsofTragedy



neveryadministrationsomeeventoccursthatdramatizesthelimitsofhuman

foresight.IntheyearofuncertaintyonVietnam,theopeningtoChina,andthe

evolvingrelationshipwiththeSovietUnion,therewasalmostnothingthe

AdministrationwaslesseagertofacethanacrisisinSouthAsia.Andasifto

underscorethecontingentqualityofallourplanning,itwastriggeredby,ofall

things,acyclone.



BorderedontheSouthbytheIndianOcean,ontheNorthbytheHimalayas,

andontheWestbytheHinduKushmountainsthatmergewiththeheavensasif

determinedtosealofftheteemingmasses,andpeteringoutintheEastinthe

marshesandriversofBengal,theIndiansubcontinenthasexistedthroughthe

millenniaasaworldapart.ItsNorthernplainssimmerinenervatingheatin

summerandareassailedbyincongruousfrostinwinter;itslushSouthinvitesa

lifeoftranquillityandrepose.Itspolyglotpeoplestestifytothewavesof

conquerorswhohavedescendeduponitthroughthemountainpasses,fromthe

neighboringdeserts,andoccasionallyfromacrossthesea.Huns,Mongols,

Greeks,Persians,Moguls,Afghans,Portuguese,andatlastBritonshave

establishedempiresandthenvanished,leavingmultitudesobliviousofeitherthe

comingorthegoing.



UnlikeChina,whichimposeditsownmatrixoflawandcultureoninvaders

sosuccessfullythattheygrewindistinguishablefromtheChinesepeople,India

transcendedforeignersnotbyco‐optingbutbysegregatingthem.Invadersmight

raiseincrediblemonumentstotheirownimportanceasiftoreassurethemselves

oftheirgreatnessinthefaceofsomuchindifference,buttheIndianpeoples

enduredbycreatingrelationshipsallbutimpervioustoalieninfluence.Likethe

MiddleEast,Indiaisthehomeofgreatreligions.YetunlikethoseoftheMiddle

East,thesearereligionsnotofexaltationbutofendurance;theyhaveinspired

mannotbypropheticvisionsofmessianicfulfillmentbutbyBearingwitnessto

thefragilityofhumanexistence;theyoffernotpersonalsalvationbutthesolace

ofaninevitabledestiny.Where eachmanisclassifiedfrombirth,hisfailureis

neverpersonal;hisqualityistestedbyhisabilitytoendurehisfate,nottoshape

it.Thecastesystemdoesnotattractcivilizationsdeterminedtoseekfulfillmentin

asinglelifetime.Itprovidesextraordinaryresilienceandcomfortinlarger

perspectives.TheHindureligionisproudandself‐c ontained;itacceptsno

converts.Oneiseitherbornintoitorforeverdenieditscomfortsandtheassured

positionitconfers. Foreignconquestisanult imateirrelevancyinthefaceofsuch

impermeability;itgivesthenon‐IndiannostatusinIndiansociety,enablingIndian

civilizationtosurvive,occasionallyeventothrive,throughcenturiesofforeign

rule.Ofcourse,somanyinvasionshavehadtoleaveahuman,notonlyan

architectural,residue.TheMoslemconquerors,representingaproselytizing

religion,offeredmassconversionasarouteforlower‐casteHindustoalleviate

theircondition.Theysucceededonlypartially,foronceconvertedthenew

Moslemslosttherespecttowhicheventheirlow‐castestatushadentitledthem.

Hereweresowntheseedsofthecommunalhatredthathasrentthe

subcontinentforthepastgenerations.



Britainwasbutoneofthelatestoftheconquerors,replacingMoslem

MogulandsomeHindurulersintheNorthandproppingupindigenousHindu

rulersintheSouth—carryingoutthecycle,itseemed,oftheages.Butinone

importantrespectBritain’sconquest wasdifferent.True,itwasmadepossible

preciselybecausetheBritishreplacedonesetofrulersbyanotherinapattern

thathadbecometraditional;itspsychologicalbasiswasthattheconceptof

nationhooddidnotyetexist.ButitwasBritainthatgavethes ubcontinent—

heretoforeareligious,cultural,andgeographicexpression—apoliticalidentityas

well.TheBritishprovidedforthefirsttimeahomogeneousstructureof

government,administration,andlaw.TheythensuppliedtheWesternvaluesof

nationalismandliberalism.Paradoxically, itwastheirownimplantingofvaluesof

nationalismandde mocracythatmadetheBritish“foreign,”thattransformeda

culturalexpressionintoapoliticalmovement.IndianleaderstrainedinBritish

schoolsclaimedfortheirpeoplestheveryvaluesoftheirrulers.Andthe

halfheartedness ofBritain’sresistancedemonstratedthatithadlostthemoral

battlebeforethephysicalonewasjoined.



Astheprospectofnationhoodappeared,thepolyglotnationalitiesthatthe

floodofinvasionshadsweptintoIndianowwereleftalonewiththeirswelling

numbers,theirgrindingpoverty,andaboveallwithoneanother. Nearlyathirdof

thetotalpopulationwasMoslem,concentratedintheWestPunjabandEast

BengalbutwithimportantpocketsalloverIndia.Manyofthesepeoples,bynow

outcastsofIndiansociety,founditunacceptabletoliveinasecularstate

dominatedbythosewhothroughthecenturieshaddisdainedthem.TheBritish

solutionin1947waspartitio nalongreligiouslines.



Thuswereborn,amidstunspeakablehorrorsandcommunalriots,the

statesofIndiaandPakistan.Pa kistanwas composedoftwounits:theWest,

dominatedbythePunjab;andtheEast,Bengali,[Bengalwassplitbythe1947partition.

TheEasternportionbecameEastPakistan;WestBengalremainedpartofIndia.]separated

byathousandmilesofIndianterrit ory,withnocommonlanguage,heldtogether

notbyeconomicsorhistorybutbyIslamanda commonfearofHindu

domination.Pakis tan’sveryexistencewasanaffronttoIndiannationalistswho

had,likeotherleadersofindependencemovements,dreamedofclaiming allthe

territoryruledbytheformercolonialpower.AndIndiasawintheneighboring

Moslemstateapotentialthreattoitsownnationalcohesion.Sincemorethan

fiftymillionMoslemsremainedunderIndia’srule,eithertheywouldsooneror

laterclaimtheirownnationalexistence,orelsethecreationofPakistanhadbeen

infacttheneedlessBritishimpositionthatsomeIndiannationalistsnevertiredof

proclaimingitwas.Foritspart,Pakistan,consciousthateventhelowest ‐class

Hindusbelievedthemselvespart ofasystemsuperiortotheMoslems,lookedon

itslargerneighborwithfear,withresentment,andoccasionallywithhatred.



Fewoldneighborshavelessincommon,despitetheircenturiesofliving

sidebyside,thantheintricate,complex Hindusandthesimpler,moredirect

Moslems.Itisreflectedinthecontrastsoftheirarchitecture.Thefinelycarved

Hindutempleshavenooksandcornerswhoseseeminglyendlessdetailconveys

nosingleviewormeaning.ThemosquesandfortswithwhichtheMogulshave

coveredtheNorthernthirdofthesubcontinentarevast,elegant,romantic,their

resplendentopulencecontrastingwiththeflatnessofthesimmeringcountryside,

theirinnumerablefountainsexpressing ayearningforsurceasefromaharsh

environmentandanostalgiaforthelesscomplicatedregionsthathadextruded

theinvader.



Inthe1950sand1960s,America,oblivioustothesenewcountries’

absorptionwiththemselves,soughttofitthemintoitsownpreconceptions.We

tookatfacevalueIndianPrime MinisterJawaharlalNehru’sclaimtobeneutral

moralarbiterofworldaffairs.Wehardlynoticedthatthiswaspreciselythepolicy

bywhichaweaknationseeksinfluenceoutofproportiontoitsstrength,orthat

Indiararelymatcheditsinternationalpretensionswithawillingnessto assume

risks,exceptonthesubcontinentwhereitsawitselfdestinedforpreeminence.

AndwetreatedPakistansimplyasapotentialmilitaryallyagainstCommunist

aggression.TherewasnorecognitionthatmostPakistanisconsideredtheirreal

securitythreattobeIndia,theverycountrythatwehadenshrinedinthe

PantheonofabstractmoralityandthatinturnviewedourarmingofPakis tanasa

challengeunderminingourattempttonurtureitsfavor.



Atoneandthesametimeweoverestimatedthefeasibilityofobtaining

India’spoliticalapprobationandmisjudgedthetargetofPakistan’smilitary

efforts.Wewereoverlysensitivetothe“worldopinion”thatIndiapurportedto

represent.ButwealsosoughttoincludePakistaninaconceptionofcontainment

thatitdidnotshare.Thelegalobligationtothecommondefensewasthoughtto

representadeterrenttoCommunistaggressionevenwhenthemembersofthe

alliancesinquestioncoulddolittletoreinforceeachother’sstrengthorhadfew

sharedobjectives.PakistanbecameourallyintheSoutheastAsiaTreaty

Organization(SEATO)andintheCentralTreatyOrganization(CENTO).

Pakistan

thusbecameeligibleforUSarmsaid,whichwasintendedforuseagainst

CommunistaggressionbutwassuspectedbyIndiaofhavingothermorelikely

uses.



ThemilitaryalliancesformedintheEisenhowerAdministrationbecame

controversialinAmericawhentheDemocraticoppositionattackedthemas

examplesofoveremphasisonmilitaryconsiderations.Indiabecamethespecial

favoriteofAmericanliberals,whosawinitscommitmenttodemocracythe

foundationofanotionalpartnershipandinitshoped‐foreconomicsuccessthe

bestrefutationofCommunistclaimstorepresentthewaveofthefuture.No

wonderthatafterthechangeofadministrationsin1961,Washington’sinterestin

Pakistancoolednoticeably;verbalassurancesofAmericanprotectioncame

increasinglytobesubstitutedformilitaryhardware.(Themultiplicationofthese

assurancescamebacktohauntusin1971.)AndallthewhileIndiaworked

tenaciouslyandskillfullyto underminethemilitaryrelationshipbetweenPakistan

andtheUnitedStatesevenafterIndiahadbuiltupasignificantweaponsindustry

ofitsownandestablishedasubstantialmilitarysupplyrelationshipwiththe

SovietUnion.



The1965India‐Pakistanwarfurnishedusapretexttodisentangleourselves

tosomedegree.TheUnitedStatesstoppedthesupplyofallmilitaryequipmentto

bothsides(thispolicywasmodifiedsomewhatin1966‐1967,topermitthe

provisionofnonlethalitemsandsparesforallequipment).Theseemingeven‐

handednesswasdeceptive;thepracticalconsequence wastoinjurePakistan,

sinceIndiareceivedmostofitsarmseitherfromCommunistnationsorfromits

ownarmories.PresidentJohnson,awareoftheone‐sidednessoftheaction,

promisedtoarrangeatransfertoPakistanofsomeobsolescentAmericantanks

throughathirdpartysuchasTurkey.Buthenevercompletedthetransaction,in

partbecausehedidnotwant tospendhiswaningCongressionalsupportonwhat

musthaveappeare dtohimamarginallyimportantdecision,inpartbecausethe

thirdpartiesdevelopedsecondthoughts.



Myownexperiencewiththesubcontinent shouldhaveforewarnedmeof

itsfeveredpassions.InJanuary1962,whileIwasstilltechnicallyaconsultantto

PresidentKennedy,theUnitedStatesInformationAgencyarrangedaseriesof

lecturesformeonthesubcontinent.OurAmbassadortoIndia,JohnKenneth

Galbraith,agoodfriendofmine,wasnotalittledisquietedabouttheimpacton

hispresumptivelysensitiveandpacifistclientsofaHarvardprofessorwhosechief

claimtofameatthattimewasabookcalledNuclearWeaponsandForeignPolicy.

IpromptlyputhismindateasebygettingmyselfembroiledwithPakistanupon

myarrivalattheNewDelhiairport.AttheinevitablepressconferenceIrepliedto

aquestionaboutKashmirwithwhatIthoughtwasadiplomaticanswer—thatI

didnotknowenoughaboutittoforma judgment.WhenqueriedaboutPakistan’s

buddingflirtationwithChina,Iwasloathtoadmitmyignoranceofadevelopment

that,inthelightoftheprevalentviewofChina’scongenitalaggressiveness,

seemedpreposterous.IthereforeopinedthatIcouldnotimaginePakistandoing

suchafoolishthing.Pakistan’sleadersalreadyfeltdiscriminatedagainstbecause

aHarvardprofessorhadbeenassignedasAmbassadortoNewDelhiwhile

Islamabadrated“only”acareerappointment.Buttheyhadbeentoocircumspect

toattackapersonalfriendofKennedy.Myairportinterviewwasagodsend.It

enabledthePakistanipresstoventitsdisappointmentagainstanotherHarvard

professorandlesserassociateofKennedy.Myconfessionofignoranceabout

KashmirwastransmutedintoasymbolofAmericanindifference.Usingtheword

“foolish”inthesamesentenceas“Pakistan”—eventodenythatPakistanwas

foolish—becameanationalinsult. Therewasonecompensation.ThePakistani

presscampaignturnedmefleetinglyintoafigureofconseque nceinIndia.Thusin

1962,atleast,thechargewasthatIwastiltingtowardIndia.



MatterseventuallycalmeddownenoughsothatIcouldshowmyfacein

Pakistanonthesametrip.IprovedimmediatelythatIhadnotlostmytouch.

ReturningtoPeshawarfromsight‐seeingattheKhyberPass,Iwaswaylaidbya

PakistanijournalistwhoaskedmewhetherIhadseenanysignofPushtoon

agitation.[ThisreferredtoamovementtodetachtheborderregionfromPakistanand

connectitwithpeoplespeakingasimilarlanguageontheAfghansideoftheKhyberPass.]On

thetheorythatthesubcontinenthadbeendeprivedofmywisecrackslong

enough,Ireplied:“IwouldnotrecognizePushtoonagitationifithitmeinthe

face.”Theresultingheadline,“KissingerDoesnotRecognizePushtoonistan,”

triggeredanofficialAfghanprotestinWashington,butatleastitmademea

momentaryheroinPakistan.ThereisnotellingwhatelseImighthaveachieved

hadIfollowedmywanderlusttovisitAfghanistan.ButtheUSIAjudgedthatithad

morethangottenitsmoney’sworthofculturalexchangeandthathomewasa

saferplaceformytalents.



ThusperhapsIshouldhaveknownbetterthantobecomeinvolvedinthe

frenziesofthesubcontinentin1971.



WhentheNixonAdministrationtookoffice,ourpolicyobjectiveonthe

subcontinentwas,quitesimply,toavoidaddinganothercomplicationtoour

agenda.Intheiruneasytwenty‐two‐years’coexistenceIndiaandPakistanhad

foughttwowars.Wesoughttomaintaingoodrelationswithbothofthem.Nixon,

toputitmildly,waslesssusceptibletoIndianclaimsofmoralleadershipthan

someofhispredecessors;indeed,heviewedwhatheconsideredtheiralleged

obsequiousnesstowardIndiaasaprimeexampleofliberalsoftheadedness.But

thisdidnotkeephimfromhavingamode ratelysuccessfulvisittoNewDelhiin

1969onhisround‐the‐worldtrip.Hequicklyabandonedhisvisionofcrowds

comparablewithEisenhower’sin1956.Thereceptionwasrestrained;crowds

weremerelyadequate;thediscussionswerewhatincommuniquélanguage

wouldbecalled“constructive”and“businesslike.” Nixongaveaveryeloquent

dinnertoast,payingtributetothewisdomofMahatmaGandhiandruminating

thoughtfullyonthenatureofpeaceinthemodernworld.



ButNixonandMrs.IndiraGandhi,IndianPrimeMinisteranddaughterof

Nehru,werenotintendedbyfatetobepersonallycongenial.Herassumptionof

almosthereditarymoralsuperiorityandhermoodysilencesbroughtoutallof

Nixon’slatentinsecurities.HerbearingtowardNixoncombinedadisdainfora

symbolofcapitalismquitefashionableindevelopingcountrieswithahintthatthe

obnoxiousthingsshehadheardaboutthePresidentfromherintellectualfriends

couldnotallbeuntrue.Nixon’scommentsaftermeetingswithherwerenot

alwaysprintable.Ontheotherhand,Nixonhadanunderstandingforleaderswho