Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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XXVIII

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TheMoscowSummit

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RichardNixonintheKremlin

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henagainstallexpectationswetookoffforMoscowinAirForceOne

onSaturdaymorning,May20,themoodwasoneofoptimism,even

elation,untingedbyexcessivehumility.Despitetheassaultsbyboth

Hanoiandourcriticswehadstoodourground;weweregoingtoMoscowwith

dignity.Wehadbehindusararepublicconsensusproducedbythestunning

eventsoftheprecedingmonth.ConservativesreveledintheminingofNorth

Vietnam;theyinterpretedthesummitasaSovietretreat.Liberalswererelieved

thatthesummitwastakingplaceatall.Someeditorialists,itistrue,were

concernedthatwemightbewalkingintoatrapsimilartothatwhichhadsnapped

shutontheKhrushchev‐EisenhowersummitinParisin1960;

butnoneofuson

theplanebelievedthis.



ThetwonegotiatingteamsonSALTwerealmostdailysettlingissuesat

Helsinki,andduringmyApriltripwehadineffectagreedwithBrezhnevona

statementofprinciplesofinternationalconduct.Theholdingofthesummitwas

theculminationofourfouryearsofinsistenceonlinkage—thatarmscontrol

couldnotstandbyitself,thatSoviethelponVietnamandrestraintintheMiddle

Eastwereessentialpreconditionsofprogressinotherfields.Inadditiontothe

majoragreementsonSALTandtheprinciplesofconduct,awholehostofother

accordshadbeennegotiatedundertheimpactofthesummitdeadline.Thetwo

leaderswererarelyinvolvedintheactualnegotiationsonthesetopics;onafew

occasionsadeadlockwasreferredtoDobryninandmeintheChannelandrapidly

settled.UsuallytheknowledgethatBrezhnevandNixonwantedadocument

readyforsignatureatthesummitencouragedaspiritofcompromiseonboth

sides.Asaresult,sixsubsidiaryagreementsawaitedtheprincipals:on

cooperationinenvironmentalprotection;onmedicalscienceandpublichealth;

ontheexplorationanduseofouterspaceforpeacefulpurposes;onscienceand

technology;onavo idingincidentsatseabyestablishing“rulesoftheroad”;and

onestablishingajointUS‐Sovieteconomiccommission.



Ofcoursenoneoftheseagreements,evenwhentheinkwasdry,would

obliteratethefundamentalcausesofconflictoverwhichtherewasasharp

divisioninourcountry.Liberalsinthosedays(beforeSolzhenitsyn’sGu lag 

volumes)tendedtobelieveeitherthattheSovietshadalreadymellowedandit

waslefttodiplomacyonlytosweepupthecobwebsleftoverfromanalready

transcendedColdWar,oratworstthatthefewremainingauthenticcausesof

tensioncouldbeendedbythestrenuousexerciseofgoodwillonourpart.

Conservatives,uneasyatsummitry,onthewholepreferredtosoundthe

trumpetsofanti‐Communism,asifrhetoricwouldcrumblethewallsoftheSoviet

empire.Theydidnotexplainhowwecouldsustainsuchacoursedomestically

amidtheVietnamhysteria.Wehadasomewhatdifferentperspectivefromeither

liberalsorconservatives.OnSovietmotivesIleanedtowardtheconserva tive

analysis;intacticsIsoughttoincorporatesomeoftheliberalviews.Ina

memorandumforthePresidentbeforeleaving,IsummarizedSovietpoliciesin

variouspartsoftheworldanddescribedtheoutlookstarkly:



TheprospectforafundamentalchangeinSoviet‐Americanrelationsisnotbright.A

SALTagreement,ofcourse,wouldmarksomeforwardprogressandmightbeaprecursorto

morenormalrelations,particularlyiftherewerealsosomeimprovementineconomicties.On

bothcountstheSovietswouldbegintohaveastakeinalesserraticandmorestable

relationship.TheratificationoftheGermantreatiesandtheimplementationoftheBerlin

agreementswouldalsoaddtoelementscreatingamorepermanentSovietinterestinstable

relationships.

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Atthesametime,inEuropetheSovietshaveinterestsinarrangementsandagreements

whichcontributetothesecurityoftheirownspherebutnotinagenuineEuropeansettlement.

AndtheconflictofinterestintheMiddleEastandinAsiaislikelytobeprolonged.



Forreasonsdeeplyrootedintheideologyoftheregimeandthestructureofinternal

Sovietpolitics,SovietforeignpolicywillremainantagonistictotheWestandespeciallytheUS.

TheworldpowerambitionsoftheSovietleaders,andanylikelysuccessors,plustheir

confidenceintheircapabilitytosupporttheirambitionswithmaterialresources,suggestthat

theUSSRwillpresstheirchallengetoWesterninterestswithincreasingvigorandincertain

situationsassumeriskswhichheretoforewouldhaveseemedexcessivelydangerous.



Butskepticismwasnotaviablepolicybyitself.Wehadtoconducta

complexpolicy—andsufferattacksfrombothliberalsandconservativesforit—

readytoconfrontSovietexpansionismandyetreceptivetomorehopeful

possibilities.WecouldnotpermittheSovietstomo nopolizetheworld’syearning

forpeace;wecouldnotmaintainthemoralleadershipoffreepeoplesifwewere

perceivedasthecauseofworldtensions,fortheineluctablefactwasthatnuclear

weaponsrequiredustoexploreallopportunities,howevertenuous,toachieve

mutualrestraint.IfwedeniedtheSovietsallopportunitiesforexpansionandkept

thedooropenforgenuinecooperation,wemightinculcatehabitsofmoderation

andbringaboutamoreconstructivefuture.



ThiswastheemphasisIgaveinmypressbriefingonMay21,whenwe

stoppedforadayinSalzburgtoadjusttothetimechange:Thetwomajornations

thatalonepossessedthepanoplyofweaponshadtoconductthemselves,Isaid,

“withadegreeofforesightcommensuratewiththeirpower.” 



TheresidencewherewestayedinSalzburgwasafittinglyspectacular

preludetoourentrytoMoscow.ItwasthecastleofKlessheim,abouttenmiles

outoftown,withhugebaroquestateroomsandelegantformalgardens.Afence

keptthepressatadistance.Cameramenwerepermittedonlyonephoto

opportunity,whichconsistedofNixonandme,lookingourmostreflective,pacing

alongthegravelpathsbetwee nstatelyhedges.Idonotnowrememberwhatwe

werediscussing,butmostoftenonsuchoccasionsitwasmorelikelybaseball

thansomeprofoundmatterofhighpolicy.



NixonhadameetingwithAustria’sshrewdandperceptiveChancellor

BrunoKreisky,whohadparlayedhiscountry’sformalneutralityintoapositionof

influencebeyonditsstrength,oftenbyinterpretingthemotivesofcompeting

countriestoeachother.Thathecouldbringoffthisbalancingactwasatributeto

histact,hisintelligence,andhisinstinctforthescope—andthelimits—of

indiscretion.Hewasmuchtrav eled;hiscommentsontrendsandpersonalities

wereinvariablyilluminating.Hehadagreatsenseofhumorandfarmore

geopoliticalinsightthanmanyleadersfrommorepowerfulcountries.Oneofthe

asymmetriesofhistoryisthelackofcorrespondencebetweentheabilitiesof

someleadersandthepoweroftheircountries(PrimeMinisterLeeKuanYewof

Singaporeisanothergoodcontemporaryexample).KreiskyandNixonexchanged

good‐humoredreflectionsontheinternationalsituation.Asapracticingpolitician

Kreiskycouldnothelpadmiringamanwhostakeshiselectiononaboldmove

andbringsitoff.NixonremarkedlaterthathewishedKreiskycouldchangeplaces

withsomeoftheSocialistleadersinlargerEuropeancountrieswhoseinsightand

sturdinessNixo nratedlesshighly.



WhileinSalzburgwereceivednewssuggestingthatBrezhnevhadnewly

strengthenedhisdomesticposition.TheSovietPartyCentralCommitteehadmet

togiveformalapprovaltohisdecisiontoproceedwiththesummit.Thatritualistic

actacquiredsignificancebythesimultaneousremovaloftheUkrainianPartychief

PyotrShelestfromthePolitburoandhisdemotiontoDeputyPrimeMinister(in

CommuniststatesthePartyfunctionsaremuchmoreimportantthan

governmentaloffice).Shelesthadbeenregardedasaninfluentialhard‐liner;in

dismissinghimBrezhnevwasdemonstratingtotheSovietrulinggroupthathe

wasincharge.Themoveimprovedourbargainingposition,forBrezhnevwould

nowbeunderadditionalpressuretoproducesignificantresultsatthesummit.



AswesetoffforMoscowonMondaymorning,May22,Nixonwasinhigh

spirits,eventhoughhewasstillconcernedabouthowtosurfacethedeclaration

of“BasicPrinciplesofUS‐SovietRelations,”ofwhich SecretaryRogersdidnotyet

know.ItoldNixonthatIwouldtrytogetBrezhnevtobringitupinamannerthat

madeitappeartoemergefromthesummit.IncandorIdidnotrateSoviet

subtletysufficientlyhightobesurethatwewouldbringitoff.Nixonagreed,

however,andtemporarilymorose,reconciledhimselftoanexplosionasin

HangchowwhentheShanghaiCommuniquéhadbeensurfacedsuddenly.



FortherestNixonpreparedhimselfassiduouslyforthesummitencounters

bystudyingthevoluminousbriefingbookspreparedbymystaffincollaboration

withtheStateDepartment.OnebriefingmemorandumanalyzedBrezhnev’s

politicalpositionandrecommendedthatNixonavoidtheimpressionthatwe

wereunderpressure“tosettleeverythingatthesemeetingsthisweek.”Asecond

describedindetailthemaneuveringwithinthePolitburo.Athirddealtwith

Brezhnev’spersonalityandobjectives,comparingthemwiththeChineseleaders’:



Brezhnevandcompanyleadasuperpower,oneequalinmanyrespectstoourown

nation.Theyspeakwiththeweightofcurrentstrategicequality,whiletheChinesestrength

derivesfromacombinationoftheirlongpastandtheirinevitablefuture…



Giventhestageofourbilateralrelationsandpersonalinclination,Choucouldspend

timewithusonhistoryandphilosophy.Brezhnevwillwanttotalkaboutconcreteissues—the

formatofaEuropeanSecurityConference,themajorelementsofaSALTagreement,themines

inHaiphongHarbor,thedrawingoflinesintheMiddleEast.Althoughheobviouslywon’tknow

allthedetailslikeGromyko,hewillbewellbriefedandincommandofhismaterial,preparedto

pressyouonspecificquestions.Hewillwantresultsandagreements,andhewillnothesitateto

dosometacticalelbowingintheprocess.



Nixonmarkeduphisbriefingpapers;heaskedmesearchingquestions.He

alsoreadexcerptsfrommyApriltalkswithBrezhnev.Buttherewasnotthesame

senseoftension,uncertainty,andinsecurityasonthetriptoPeking.Heknew

Moscowandwasthereforemoreconfident.Healsoknew—evenifitwasnotyet

public—thatthebasicissueshadbeenessentiallysettledduringmytripinAprilor

inthenegotiationsbythevario usdepartments.Nixon’smajortaskwouldbeto

conductatourd’horizonwiththeSovietleaders.Thiswashisstrongsuit,andhe

wasrightlyconfidentthathewouldcarryitoff.



WelandedinMoscowat4:00p.m.onMonday,May22.Alldaythesunhad

beenunabletodecidewhethertojointhearrivalceremony;itsfinaljudgment

aboutthesummitturnedouttobeasambiguousasUS‐Sovietrelations.Just

beforewearrived,ithidbehindcloudssothatthearriva lceremonytookplacein

alightrain.Assoonastheceremonywasovertherainstopped.Forourarrivalat

theKremlinthepaleNorthernlightoftheMoscowspringshoneontheAmerican

flagthatonlyminutesbeforehadbeenraisedoverthetowerstodenotethe

extraordinaryfactthatanAmericanPresidentwasinresidence.



PresidentNikolaiPodgornyandPremierAlexeiKosygingreetedNixonat

theairport.LeonidBrezhnevstucktoprotocol;asPartyGeneralSecretaryhehad

noneedtobepresent.Healmostneverattendedthearrivalofnon‐Co mmunist

dignitaries.Somelearnedpresscommentariesneverthelessfoundgreat

significanceinhisabsence.Theceremonywasashadelessausterethanthatin

Peking.ThewordwasobviouslyouttoimproveontheChinesereceptionbutnot

tothepointofoffendingHanoi.Asmallcrowdwavedpaperflagsatonesideof

theterminalbuilding;dignitarieswerelinedupontheother.Psychologistscan

determinewhichconveysacoolerimpression—anemptytarmacasinPeking,or

acrowdsoconspicuouslysmallastosymbolizeminimumformality.Therewas

aboutthearrivalceremonythequintessentialSovietmixtureofbrutestrength

andsurfaceefficiency,coupledwiththelatentsensethatsomeminorproblem

couldmakethewholesplendidmachinerygrindtoahalt.Animpressivehonor

guardpassedinreviewbeforeweweremovedpell‐melltowardahugefleetof

waitingSovietZILlimousines—carsthathavethelookofa1958Packardandfeel

asiftheyhavethesamebasicchassisastheSovietlighttank.



ThewideavenuesofMoscowhadbeenclearedoftrafficasourmotorcade,

somefiftyvehicles,racedtowardtheKremlin.Itseemedbentonbreakingthe

speedrecordsetduringmysecrettrip;itprobablysucceeded.Buseswere

blockingallsidestreets,thuspreventinganymemberofthe“masses” from

payingtributetothePresident.Hereandthereonecouldseecrowdsofcurious

onlookersbehindthebarricades.Theyweretoofarawayforustobeableto

judgetheirmood.



TheKremlinhassinisterconnotations;oneexpectsbuildingswhere

menacingparapetsreflecttheviolenthistorytowhichtheyhavebornewitness.

Theaestheticrealityisotherwise.WhatstartedasthefortressofMoscowhad

beentransformedbyItalianarchitectsinthefifteenthcenturyintoanornate

conceitwhosebrightcolorsandclassicproportionsgivetheinhabitantsofwintry

Russiaabriefvisionofalessharshandsolemnenvironment.TheKremlinrises

overMoscowlikeabeautifulmiragesustainingawearytraveler.Yellow‐ochred

facadeswithwhitetrimpeekovertheredbrickwalls.Onceinsideitsvast

enclosedexpanse,onemightalmostenjoytheillusionofbeinginanItalian

Renaissancecity,wereitnotforthevariousmedievalchurcheswiththeir

characteristicmultiplegoldentowersandthehideoussemimodernisticPalaceof

Congresses,whichneo‐Stalinistarchitecturehasinflictedononeofthebeautifully

proportionedsquares.Itisatributetotheoriginaldesignthateventhis

incongruousstructureofmarbleandglassisunabletodisrupttheunderlying

harmony.



Nixon’sapartmentwasinthepalaceoftheTsars’Apartments,whichalso

housestheArmoryMuseum,astrikingcollectionofjewelry,robes,andcarriages,

andothertreasuresfromTsaristdays—Iv antheTerrible’sthrone,Boris

Godunov’ssuitofarmor,CatherinetheGreat’sgowns,Fabergeeggs,andsoon.

Thismuseumissustainedbythecurrentregime,onesupposes,tomaintainthe

nationalpride,whilereminding thepublic,inaccompanyingdescriptions,ofthe

exploitationonwhichthewealthwasbased.ThePresidentialquarterswere

locatedatthesideofalongcorridorlinedwiththeurnsthatBrezhnevhad

proudlyshownmeandthatwerenowresplendentintheircarefullypreserved

sheen.Whoeverhadpolishedthemnodoubtstronglysupportedthedecisionto

receiveusdespiteouractionsinIndochina.Thesuitewasonthegrandioseside,

withbeautifulrococofurniture.SeveralsittingroomsledtothePresident’s

bedroom.Acrossacourtyardalongaparallelcorridorwerethesuitesofthe

seniorWhiteHousestaff.Theyhadthebetterview,facingtheoutside,butthe

roomswereofmoremodestproportions.ThefurniturewasfromtheCommunist

period,whichistosayitwasheavyandnotverycomfortable.Rogerswashoused

inthenewRossiyaHotelnearRedSquare,aboutfiveminutes’drivefro mthe

President’squarters.Totheuninitiatedthisseemscloseenough;butevenmore

thantheadjacentguesthousesinPekingitperpetuatedthepsychologicalgulf

betweenthetwobureaucracies,asifhewereinSiberia.



Alas,thesplendidPresidentialapartmentprovedunsuitedtotheconduct

ofbusiness.Oursecurityexpertswerecertainitwasbuggedbysophisticated

equipment.Nixonrefusedtousethebabbler;itsnoisedrovehimcrazy.Thusthe

PresidentandIwerereducedtousinghis Americanlimousineparkedoutsidefor

reallyprivateconversations,hopingthatitsbulletproofwindowswouldinhibit

anyelectronicequipmentaimedatit.



Butthiswasnotourconcernuponarrival.Nixon’sromanticstreakwas

touchedbythehistoryoftheKremlinandbybeingthefirstAmericanPresidentto

visitthere.KosyginandPodgornymadesomesmalltalkandthenexcused

themselves.Thesummitwasatlastunderway. 



<<Contents>>



****



GreetingsandMeetings



ixon’sfirstmeetingwithBrezhnevwassprungaboutanhourlater—probably

inimitationoftheMaoprocedure—justbeforethewelcomingdinner.

BrezhnevinsistedonseeingNixonalone.Nixonfollowedhisusualpracticeofnot

takingaStateDepartmentinterpreter—which,nowthatItoo wasexcluded,I

foundirksome.Aswashiscustom,healsodidnotdictate anofficialrecord,

thoughhebriefedmeorally.IwasreducedtoaskingthesplendidSoviet

interpreterViktorSukhodrevtodictatehisaccounttoJuliePineau,mysecretary.

Heobviouslydidnotgivehischieftheworstoftheexchanges—recallingDean

Acheson’sfamousdictumthatnooneeverlostadebateinamemorandumof

conversationdictatedbyoneself.Sukhodrev’saccountshowsmuchofthe

meetingtakenupbyalongmonologuebyBrezhnev.Hebeganbysayingthatit

hadnotbeen“easy”fortheSovietUniontoagreeto themeetinginthelightof

whatweweredoinginVietnam;itsoundedplausible,thoughitgrewtiresomeas

theweekworeonanditbecamearefrain.Nomeetingsee medofficialuntilthe

seniorSovietleaderpresenthadpronouncedthisliturgyandimpliedthatSoviet

restraintrequiredsomeAmericanreciprocity.



BrezhnevavowedhisdedicationtoafundamentalimprovementinUS‐

Sovietrelations;hence,heaverred,heconsideredthe“BasicPrinciplesofUS‐

SovietRelations”evenmoreimportantthantheprojectedSALTagreement.

BrezhnevcomplainedthatthetechnicalpreoccupationoftheSALTdelegates

needed“lookinginto.”Inpart,thiscom p laintmayhavebeengenuine;inpart,it

enabledthetwoleaderstoactouttheseemingpsychologicalnecessity,atany

summit,ofpretendingthattheyhavepersonallybrokenadeadlockproducedby

theirlessinspiredsubordinates.BrezhnevstressedhisinterestinaEuropean

SecurityConference.AndhemanagedtotryoutonNixontheprojectthathehad

sprungonmeweeksearlier,anagreementthatneithersidewouldusenuclear

weaponsagainsttheother.



Nixonwasnotanxiousfordetailednegotiationsatthispoint.Hewasmore

eagertodemonstratehowwellhehadpreparedhimselfbyquotingbackto

Brezhnevexcerptsfromthelatter’sconversationswithmeinApril.Heavoided

Vietnam.HeagreedtoaEuropeanSecurityConference“inprinciple,”sayingthat

onlyproceduralobstaclesremained.Thiscouldmeananything.Heshuntedthe

accordtorefrainfromtheuseofnuclearweaponsbacktome,therebyexposing

metoanotheryearofheavy‐handedSovietcajolery.Heimpliedthathemightbe

preparedtodiscussMiddleEastissues.Neitheroftheleadershavingachieved

highofficethroughtheirmasteryofdetail,theonlyagreementtheycouldreach

atthispointwasontheuntrustworthinessandinadequacyoftheirbureaucracies.

NixonsuggestedthatBrezhnevandheshouldreturntothewartimeatmosphere

whenfundamentalissuesweresettledbyheadsofgovernment,with

subordinatesconfinedtotechnicalimplementation.“Ifweleavealldecisionsto 

thebureaucratswewillneverachieveanyprogress,”saidNixon.“Theywould

simplyburyusinpaper,”Brezhnevassentedhappily.



Havingestablishedthiscommunityofinterest,thetwoleadersproceeded

toswapaccountsoftheirdomesticdifficulties.Brezhnevallowedthathewould

havetobringKosyginandPodgornytomostmeetings;Nixonreciprocatedby

pointingoutthatRogersdidnotyetknowaboutthe“BasicPrinciples.”Heasked

Brezhnev’shelptointroducethedocumentinamannercompatiblewithour

bureaucraticnecessities.This wasagameBrezhnevcouldrecognize;hereadily

agreed.



Thetwoleaderskepttheotherguestswaitingatthestatedinner,

scheduledtostartat8:00p.m.Thishadtheadditionalbenefitofcreatingthe

impressionthatmattersofthegravestimportwerebeingdiscussed.Thedinner

tookplaceinthesplendidGranovitHalloftheGrandKremlinPalace,anexquisite

fifteenth‐centuryroomwithvaultedceilingsandwallscoveredwithreligious

paintings.Becausetheroomwasrelativelysmall,theguestswerefewerthanon

similaroccasionsinChina—abouttwohundred.Theyincludedthetopleadership

oftheSovietUnionandtheofficialpartiesofbothsides.Thedinnerlackedthe

preciseplanningofthePekingbanquets;itwasmorelikethegatheringofa

slightlydisorganizedfamily.Whilewewaitedfortheprincipalsto arrive,there

wasaimlessmillingaboutwitheachdelegationkeepinggenerallytoitself.The

Sovietleadersenteredatirregularintervals;therewasnoreceivingline.Finally

BrezhnevandNixonappearedandmadesomejocularremarkstoafewofthe

peopletheyknew.Whereuponwithoutanyfurtherceremony,everyonewentin

todinneraboutanhourlate.



BothNixonandPodgorny(Nixon’sequivalentinprotocolrank)madelong

butunsensationaltoasts.PodgornyreaffirmedtheSovietcommitmentto

peacefulcoexistence,whichhesaidhadbeenaprincipleofSovietbehaviorsince

Lenin’stime;wewouldhavepreferredintimationofsomechangeinSoviet

conduct;continuitywasnotwithoutmenace.Podgornyleftunansweredthe

fundamentalquestions:Wasrelaxationof tensionsonlyatacticinanunending

struggletooverturntheworldequilibrium?Orwereweatthebeginningofanew

phaseofSovietpolicy?



Nixon’sresponsetookthethemesthatwewouldseektousherinaperiod

ofgenuinegreat‐powerrestraint.IncontrasttohisspeechinPeking,heeschewed

hyperbole.Hewishedthesummittoberemembered,hesaid,forsubstance

ratherthanatmosphere:



Weshouldrecognizethatgreatnuclearpowershaveasolemnresponsibilitytoexercise

restraintinanycrisis,andtotakepositiveactiontoavertdirectconfrontation.



Withgreatpowergoesgreatresponsibility.Itispreciselywhenpowerisnot

accompaniedbyresponsibilitythatthepeaceisthreatened.Letourpoweralwaysbeusedto

keepthepeace,nevertobreakit.



Weshouldrecognizefurtherthatitistheresponsibilityofgreatpowerstoinfluence

othernationsinconflictorcrisistomoderatetheirbehavior.



TheSovietsummitthusbeganauspiciouslyenough.However,itnever

developedtheuniformtextureoftheoneinPeking;itwasmorerandomand

jagged.WehadhadlittlepracticalbusinesswiththeChinese.ThePekingsummit

hadthereforefocusedoncreatingthephilosophicalandpsychologicaltiesthat

wouldcausecoordinatedpoliciestoemergefromacommonappreciationofthe

internationalsituation.ButweweregeopoliticallytoocompetitivewiththeSoviet

UnionforsuchanapproachtobepossibleinMoscow.AndtheSovietsleaders

werepsychologicallytooinsecureandinsensitivetointangiblestotrust

themselvesintheoreticaldiscussions.Theyhadreachedeminencebythecold

eliminationofrivalswhowerealso colleagues.Theycouldhardlytrustacapitalist

statesmanmorethantheytrustedoneanother.Collectiveleadershipaggravated

theunease.Amistakemadecollectivelycouldbesurvived;asetbackcausedbyan

individualexcessivetrustseemedunforgivable.Sovietleadersthereforereinsured

themselvesoverandoveragainbydocumentsandwritteninterpretations.

Philosophicaldiscussionsmadethemvisiblynervous;theyconsideredthemeither

atrickorasmokescreen;theymaneuveredthemasrapidlyaspossibleinthe

directionofsome concreteresultthatcouldbesigned.Theresultwasthateven

writtenagreementswereachievedbysomuchhagglingalongthewaythatthey

stoodaloneandontheirownterms;theyleftlittleresidueofgoodwill.Onehad

thesensethatonlytheliteralmeaningofdocumentswouldbeobserved(ifatall)

andthatwhatwasnotwrittendownhadnosignificancewhatever.The“spirit”of

adocumentwasameaninglessphrasetotheSovietleadership.



ThismeantinpracticethatthediscussionsbetweenNixonandtheSoviet

leaderslackedacentraltheme.TherewasonedramaticmeetingonVietnam.For

theresttheSovietleadersmetwithNixonatirregularintervals,discussingagrab

bagofsubjects,includingEurope,theMiddleEast,andeconomicrelations,

withoutachievingeitherpreciseconclusionsorprofoundpoliticalinsight.Onthe

wholewhatemergedwereformalexpressionsofstandardpositionsnot

significantlydifferentfromthewrittenexchangesthathadgonebackandforth