Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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bothsidesshouldtakeifpeacewastobelasting.Butheremindedhislisteners

that“maintainingthestrength,integrity,andsteadfastnessofourfreeworld

alliancesisthefoundationonwhichallofourotherinitiativesforpeaceand

securityintheworldmustrest.Asweseekbetterrelationswiththosewhohave

beenouradversaries,wewillnotletdownourfriendsandalliesaroundthe

world.”



Itwasafairsummaryofourachievements,ourchallenges,andour

opportunities.Still,itseemedtobeinherentinNixon’slife—itwashistragedy—

thathewasunabletocloseanychapterorfindacceptancewithanynew

departure.Everystephetookwasimmediatelysubsumedagaininthe

controversiesanddistrusthehadaccumulatedoveralifetime.Hesoonfound

himselfinthepara doxicalpositionofaformerColdWarrioraccusedofbeingtoo

committedtoeasingrelationswiththeSovietUnion.Whatwasthereality?



Thecontextaswellasthecontentofthesummitmadeitamajorsuccess

forAmericanpolicy.ThefactthatwehadfaceddownHanoiandyetcompleted

majornegotiationswithMoscow(threemonthsafterthespectacularinPeking)

evokedtheprospectofamorehopefulfutureandthusputVietnaminto

perspective.ThesummitshelpeduscompletetheisolationofHanoibygiving

MoscowandPekingastakeintheirtieswithus.Whatwasevenmorenovel,we

werefreedforthebetterpartoftheyearfromthedomesticturmoilonwhich

thusfarHanoihadalwaysbeenableto count.This,togetherwiththemilitary

defeatoftheNorthVietnameseoffensive,ledtoabreakthroughinthepeace

negotiationswithinmonths.Thesummitwasequallysignificantfortheevolution

oftheMiddleEast.AsIwillshow,itmarkedaturningpointatwhichmoderate

ArableadersbegantomovetowardWashington;itwasastepintheprocessthat

eighteenmonthslatersawformerenemiesstartonthetortuousjourneytoward

peaceunderanAmericanaegis.



Butthefundamentalachievementwastosketchtheoutlineonwhich

coexistencebetweenthedemocraciesandtheSovietsystemmustbebased.SALT

embodiedourconvictionthatawildlyspiralingnucleararmsracewasinno

country’sinterestandenhancednoone’ssecurity;the“BasicPrinciples”gaveat

leastverbalexpressiontothenecessityofresponsiblepoliticalconduct.Thetwo

elementsreinforcedeachother;theysymbolizedourconvictionthatarelaxation

oftensionscouldnotbebasedexclusivelyonarmscontrol;theultimatetest

wouldberestrainedinternationalbehavior.Andherethebilateralagreements

signedeachdayinMoscow—onenvironment,space,technicalcooperation,

incidentsatsea,theestablishmentofaneconomiccommission—couldovertime

establishvestedinterestsinpeace.Itwassuretobealongroadandyetit

reflectedtheimperativeofpeaceofthenuclearage.



Wewereinvolvedinadelicatebalancingact:tobecommittedtopeace

withoutlettingthequestforitbecomeaformofmoraldisarmament,

surrenderingallothervalues;tobepreparedtodefendfreedomwhilemaking

clearthatunconstrainedrivalrycouldriskeverything,including freedom,ina

nuclearholocaust.Onlyaleaderfirminhisauthority,secureinhispublicsupport,

couldwalkthistightrope—oneproneneithertothesentimentalityofidentifying

coexistencewithgoodpersonalrelations,nortorecklessposturingforitsown

sake.Whetherthiswouldhavehadtherequisitepublicsupportinan

AdministrationledbyRichardNixonwewillneverknow.Ibelievehis

unsentimentalgraspofinternationalaffairswasavaluableasset.Inanyevent

Watergatepreventedthefullfruitionoftheprospectsthenbeforeus,notonlyin

nurturingUS‐Sovietrelationsbutmoregenerallyindevelopinganewstructureof

internationalrelations.



Forasfaraheadaswecansee,America’staskwillbetore‐createand

maintainthetwopillarsofourpolicytowardtheSovietUnionthatwebeganto

buildinMoscow:awillingnesstoconfrontSovietexpansionismanda

simultaneousreadinesstomarkoutacooperativefuture.Amorepeacefulworld

ispreventedifweleantoofarineitherdirection.Whenconciliationbecomesan

endinitself,aruthlessSovietpolicycanturnit,asitoccasionallyhas,intoan

instrumentofblackmailandacoverforunilate ralgains.Whenthemorehopeful

US‐Sovietdialogueisclosedoffbyouraction,apriceispaidindomesticsupport

andalliedcohesion.Asuccessfulpolicyneedsbothelements:incentivesforSoviet

restraint(suchaseconomiclinks),andpenaltiesforadventurism(suchasfirmUS

counteraction,includingmilitaryassistancetofriendsresistingSovietorCubanor

radicalpressures).



Tomaintainthedualtrackoffirmnessandconciliationrequireda

disciplinedExecutiveBranchandaCongressandpublicwithconfidenceintheir

government;asophisticatedunde rstandingofthenationalinterestandagraspof

howeventsandproblemsinonespherearerelatedtothosein another.Itwasa

taskcomplexbeyondanypreviousexperience.I,too,wasambivalent,profoundly

distrustfulofSovietmotives,determinedtopreventSovietexpansion,scornfulof

thosecriticswhoabjectlyacceptedSovietadvancesorreliedonhistorytoundo

them.Tosomeextentmyinterestindetentewastactical,asadevicetomaximize

SovietdilemmasandreduceSovietinfluenceasintheMiddleEast;inpartitwas

domestic,tooutmanueverthe“peace”pressuressowecouldrallyourpublicifa

showdownprovedunavoidable.Andyettherewasaresiduereflectingthe

unprecedentedchallengeofourperiod;aconvictionthatthemoralimperativeof

leadershipinourtimewastokeepopentheprospect,howev erslim,ofa

fundamentalchange,ofdoingourutmostsothatArmageddondidnotdescend

onusthroughneglectorlackofforesight.



Unfortunately,theerosionofNixon’sdomesticbasepreventedusfrom

fullyimplementingourvisionorourstrategy.RelationswiththeSovietUnion

grewincreasinglycontroversialunderanattackbybothliberalsand

conservatives.LiberalswhoforthreeyearshadassaultedNixonforbellicosityand

intransigencenowfounditconvenienttocriticize,ifnotdetenteitself,thenits

“overselling”inAmerica.Significantly,thecriticismwaslittleheardin1972and

early1973,intheheydayofUS‐Sovietdetente.Itappearedfirstinthesecondhalf

of1973,astheSovietscrackeddownondissidents,AndreiSakharovmadehis

appealofAugust1973endorsingtheJac ksonamendment,theOctober1973

MiddleEastwarbrokeout(whichsomedecidedwasinstigatedbytheSoviets)—

andasWatergateeruptedandweakenedthePresidency.Noevidencewasever

adducedtoshowwhatthis“overselling”consistedof.Indeed,evenacasual

readingofthestreamofspeeches,pressstatements,andinterviewsduringthis

periodwillshowapatternofAdministrationcaution,constantlypointingoutthe

limits,theambiguities,thecompetitioninherentintherelationship,the

requirementofvigilance,aswellastheveryrealprogressthathadbeenmade.



Itwasasymptomofourdomesticdivis ionsthatthiscriticismcouldhave

beenraisedatallaboutanAdministrationthathadfaceddowntheSovietsover

Cienfuegos,hadresistedproxywarsbyIndiaandSyria,hadestablishedthe

principlesoflinkage,hadbegunPresidentialvisitstoEasternEurope,hadfought

forastrongdefense,andhadshoulderedthecommitmentsofitspredecessorsin

Indochinainorderto maintainAmericanglobalcredibilityagainstaggression—all

inthefaceofsomeofthemostbitterdomesticassaultsinacentury.



Tobesure,Nixon’spenchantforhyperbolewasunlikelytoberestrainedin

anelectionyear.Hestartedoutexpressingthe“hope”foragenerationofpeace.

Soonhecametoclaimitasan“accomplishment.” Andintheclosingdaysofthe

1972electioncampaignheevenescalatedthegoaltobea“centuryofpeace.’’

Hispublicrelationspeoplewereindefatigableinpropoundingthese

propositions—overmyfrequentlyexpressed,butratherineffective,dissent.But

campaignoratoryaside,Nixon’sformalstatementsneverfailedtostressthe

competitivenessbetweentheSovietandAmericansystemsandtheprofound

ideologicalgulfintensifyingtherivalry.AgoodexampleisthePresident’sForeign

PolicyReportofMay3,1973.Itstressedtheneedforabalanceofpowerandalso

forinternationalrestraint.ItreemphasizedourAllianceties.Itwarnedthat

detentedidnotmeantheendofdanger.ItaffirmedthatAmericawasprepared

toshareitsresponsibilities,butnottoabdicatethem.



Moscow,SALT,anddetente,however,didgiverisetoadeeperandmore

legitimateconcern,notonesofrivolousandcynicalasthatexpressedbyNixon’s

traditionalopponentsontheleftwhosuddenlyconvertedtoanti‐Communism

whenNixonembraceddetente.Manyconservativeswhohadpreviouslybacked

Nixonbeganto worrynotaboutthepolicyoftheAdministrationbutaboutthe

psychologicalconsequencesoftheprocess.Americawasyearningforrelieffrom

yearsofbitternessandturmoil.SpectaculareventssuchasNixon’svisitstoPeking

andMoscow,whileembodyingrealachievementsandsobercalculation,also

servedasdramaticemotionalcontrastsfortheAmericanpeopleafteradecadeof

upheavalandguilt.Therewasboundtobeexuberance,relief,exultationafterthe

fatigueandbackbitingthatwerewearingusdown.Theconservativesfearedthat

theAmericanpeople,initshistoricalalternationbetweenoptimismandgloom

aboutSovietpurposes,wasswingingtoofartowardaeuphoriathatovertime

wouldsapitswill.Theyforesawanerosionofalldistinctions,adecayof

convictions,whenAmericanandSoviet(orforthatmatterChineseCommunist)

leadersweredisplayedineasycamaraderieonAmericantelevisionscreens.They

wonderedhowwewouldmaintainourvigilance—whateverthesavingclausesin

Presidentialstatements—w henweproclaimedanewera.Theydoubtedwhether

Americacouldsustainboththewillingnesstoconfrontandthereadinessto

cooperateatthesametime.



Theyhadapoint;theyhadthehistoricalrecordontheirside.Noperiodof

coexistencewiththeSovietsystemhasprovedpermanent.Eachhasbeenusedby

theKremlinasaspringboardforanewadvance.Andyetinourperiodthiswasa

counselofdespair.Thequestforpeacefulcoexistenceclearlyhaditsperils;itdid

notfollowthatacrusadingpolicyofconfrontationwouldprovemoresuccessful.

Theformermightsapourvigilance;thelatterwouldriskournationalcohesion

andouralliancesasourgovernmentwouldbedenouncedwithincreasing

vehemenceasthecauseofinternationaltensions.Wewouldnotacceptthatthe

Americanpeoplecouldmaintaintheirvigilanceonlybyastridentmilitancethat

concededtoouradversariesamonopolyontheglobalyearningforpea ce,and

thatwouldgraduallymaneuvertheUnitedStatesgovernmentintoisolation.

Americanswouldhavetolearntolivewiththegeopoliticalchallengeof

maintainingtheglobalbalanceofpower;itwasourdutytoblockSoviet

expansionism;thesesoberconvictionsanimatedourpolicy.Butpreciselybecause

theconflictwasalsoideologicalandpolitical,wethoughtthatwewould weaken

ourselvesbynotlookingbeyondthemilitarybalance.Amidthenationalhysteria

onVietnam,itwouldalmostcertainlyhavebeenself‐defeating.Asdetentecame

underattack,theUSCongressdidnotproveanymorewillingtoconfrontSoviet

adventurisminAngolain1975—andmanyhawksjoinedthemajorityblockingthe

Americaneffortthere.WeweredeterminedtoresistSovietaggressiveness,but

wethoughtthechancesbetterifourpolicyalsogaveexpressiontohope.It

remainstobeseenwhether,givenourhistoricalexperienceandthebitternessof

ourrecentpast,itispossibletowalk thisnarrowpath;whetherwearedoomed

tooscillateerraticallybetweenexcessiveconciliationandexcessivebellicosity.It

continuesasthefundamentaltaskofanyadministration.



InbriefingabipartisangroupofCongressionalleadersaboutSALT onJune

15,1972,Idefinedourchallenge:



ThedeepestquestionweaskisnotwhetherwecantrusttheSoviets,butwhetherwe

cantrustourselves.Somehaveexpressedconcernabouttheagreementsnotbecausethey

objecttotheirterms,butbecausetheyareafraidoftheeuphoriathattheseagreementsmight

produce.Butsurelywecannotbeaskedtomaintainavoidabletensionjusttocarryout

programswhichournationalsurvivalshoulddictateinanyevent.Wemustnotdevelopa

nationalpsychologybywhichwecanactonlyonthebasisofwhatweareagainstandnoton

whatwearefor.



Ourchallengesthenare:Canwechartanewcoursewithhopebutwithoutillusion,with

largepurposesbutwithoutsentimentality?Canwebebothgenerousandstrong?Itisnotoften

thatacountryhastheopportunitytoanswersuchquestionsmeaningfully.



TheMoscowsummitgaveusanopportunitytobeginananswer.Destiny

willedthatwecouldnotcompleteit,butthatweconsumedourselvesin

controversy.Perhapsitisimpossibletogiveaconclusiveanswerinanybrief

period.ForUS‐SovietrelationsarenowapermanentchallengefortheAmerican

people,whoseresponsewilldecideoursecuritybutalsotheprospectsfora

betterworld.



<<Contents>>



****

XXIX



SummitAftermath



AVisittotheShahofIran



heravagesoftime,emotion,andupheavalhavecastintoastarklydifferent

contextthepleasantjourneyImade withNixonafterweconcludedthe

Moscowsummit.FromKiev,weflewtoTehranonMay30,tobegreetedby

oneofAmerica’sclosestallies,theShahofIran.

T



Attheairportstoodaslight,erectfigure,MohammedRezaPahlavi,

ShahanshahAryamehr,imperialbytitle,imperiousbybearing.Americahaslittle

tobeproudofinourreactiontohisoverthrowmanyyearslater.Historyis

writtenbythevictors;andtheShahisnotmuchinvoguetoday.Yetithardly

enhancesourreputationforsteadfastnesstohearthechorustodayagainsta

leaderwhomeightPresidentsofbothpartiesproclaimed—rightly—afriendofour

countryandapillarofstabilityinaturbulentandvitalregion.



Theinstitutionofshahoremperorwasnotapersonalinventionofthe

Pahlavis;itsrootsaredeepinIran’spast.Locatedcentrallyamidalltheworld’s

greatcultures—reachingfromtheIndiansubcontinentwithitsconglomerateof

color,passion,andendurancetothemonochromaticexaltationofArabia;

borderedbySovietCentralAsiaintheNorth;andseparatedfromAfricaonlybya

narrowspanofocean—Iranhasinevitablybeenatthevortexofworldhistory.

Conquerorshaveissuedfromthissternlandofforbiddingmountainsandparched

deserts,offertileseashoresandstarkcolors;foreignconquerorshaveaddeditto

theirdominion.Indians,Mongols,Afghans,Arabs,Cossacks,Greeks,Europeans,

havewashedacrosstheedificesofitsgloriouspast,sometimestostay,

occasionallytopassonward.Allrecededintime,leavingaresiduethatmerged

intoapopulationwhichneverlostitsPersianidentity;thegrandeurofPersian

aspirationsandcultureimposeditsownconsciousness,transcendingthenational

origin,race,orpurposeoftheinvaders.Theresultwasnotanationalstateinthe

EuropeansensebutapotpourriofPersians,Kurds,Baluchis,Afghans,Jews,

Turkomans,Arabs,andmanyothers.



Fortwenty‐fivehundredyearsIranhasbeengovernedasanempireevenas

thedynastieschanged;thestateneededaunifyingprinciplebeyondthatofthe

manynationalitiescomposing it.Inoneoftheironiesofhistory,themost

individualisticpeoplesandcentrifugalsocietiessometimescreatethemost

absoluteformsofrule,asifonlythemostexaltedauthoritycouldjustify

subordination.InIran,whateverthedynasty,theauthorityofgovernance

ultimatelyresidedintheremotenessoftheemperor:Itwashishistorical

strength,aswellashisweakness.WithoutdoubttheShahwasanauthoritarian

ruler.Thiswasinkeepingwiththetraditions,perhapseventhenecessities,ofhis

society.Itwasforatimethesourceofhisstrengthjustasitbecamelateracause

ofhisdownfall.



AstimewentonandIgottoknowtheShahbetter,Irealizedthathewas

notbynatureadomineeringpersonality.Indeed,hewasrathershyand

withdrawn.Icouldneverescapetheimpressionthathewasagentle,even

sentimentalmanwhohadschooledhimselfinthemaximthattherulermustbe

aloofandhard,buthadneversucceededinmakingitcomenaturally.Hismajestic

sidewaslikearolerehearsedovertheyears.Inthishewasaprisoner,Isuspect,

oftheneedsofhisstate,justas hewasultimatelythevictimofhisownsuccesses.



TheShahwas—despitethetravestiesofretroactivemyth—adedicated

reformer.Hewas“progressive”inthesensethathesoughttoindustrializehis

society;oneoftheprimecausesofhisdisaster,infact,wasthathemodernized

toorapidlyandthathedidnotadapthispoliticalinstitutionssufficientlytothe

economicandsocialchangeshehadbroughtabout.Hecarriedoutavastland

reform.Hefosteredliteracyfarbeyondwhatwasevenattemptedinneighboring

countries.Hundredsofthousandsofstudentsweresentongovernment

scholarshipstoforeigncountrieswheremanyofthemjoinedradicalmovements.

Women’srightswerebroadened.TheIranianGrossNationalProductgrewby10

percentayearfrom1967to1972,afterwhichthepell‐melladvancewasreplaced

byamoresusta inable6percent.Tobesure,therewerealsodarkersides:high‐

levelcorruptionwhichblightedthenobleaspirationsandmethodsofrepression

unworthyoftheenlightenedgoals.



Basically,theShahwasapplyingaxiomsofallthemore“advanced”

literatureoftheWest.Evenhisneglectofpoliticalinstitutionshadrootsin

Westernthinkingabouttherelationshipbetweeneconomicdevelopmentand

politicalstability.MuchoftheAmericantheoryabouteconomicdevelopment

reflectedtheexperienceoftheMarshallPlan.Politicalstabilitywassupposedto

followfromeconomicadvance;itwasassumedbymanyWesterneconomists,

andbelievedbytheShah,thatthegovernmentwhichraisedthestandardofliving

wouldtherebygainpublicapprobation.Inotherwords,economicprogresswas

itselfacontributiontopoliticalstability.Thistheoryprovedtobedisastrously

wrongandmisguided.



InEuropeandJapan,wherepoliticalinstitutionsandafunctioning

bureaucracyhaddevelopedoverthecenturies,thethreattostabilitywasindeed

thegapbetweenrealityandexpectation;there,economicprogressenhancedthe

acceptabilityofthegovernmentthatbroughtitabout.Butinunderdeveloped

countrieseconomicgrowthtendstohavetheoppositeeffect;itcompounds

politicalunrest.Establishedinstitutionsareundermined,andifithappensbefore

newonesareputintheirplaceupheavalisinevitable.Themassmigrationfrom

thecountrysideintothecitiesseparatestheworkersfromtraditionalpa tternsof

lifebeforenewrelationshipscantaketheirplace.Preciselywheneconomic

developmentgainsitsgreatestmomentum,theexistingpoliticalandsocial

structuresgrowmostfragileandtheacceptedvaluesoftraditionaremost

threatened.Fortunateisthecountrythatcanmanageatransitiontonewpolitical

formswithoutturmoil.Wiseistherulerwhounderstandsthateconomic

development,farfromstrengtheninghisposition,carrieswithittheimperativeof

buildingnewpoliticalinstitutionstoaccommodatethegrowingcomplexityofhis

society.



ItcannotbesaidthateithertheShahorhisfriendspossessedthiswisdom;

but,itmustberemarked,neitherdidhisenemies.Themostimplacable

oppositioncamenotfromthosewhowantedgreaterpoliticalparticipationin

governmentbutfromtraditionalquarterswhowerebeingforcedtoyieldtothe

thrustofmodernism—thelandowners,themullahsdeprivedofprivileges,the

votariesoftheoldorder.Orelseitcamefromradicalswhofoundhereditary

authoritarianismirksomeprimarilybecausetheywishedtoreplaceitwithamore

efficientstructureofpowerbasedonideology.Groundupbetweentheseforces

werethegenuinebelieversindemocracyandtolerance—a smallgroupof

Western‐educatedintellectualswhosedestinyitwastobepersecutedby

whateverregimegovernedIran.SotheShahfoundhimselfprogressively

underminedbyhissuccesses,forthefurtherheadvancedthemoreenemieshe

created.Andhewasnotfarsightedenoughtocreatenewpoliticalinstitutionsor

toenlistnewloyaltiestosustainpoliticalstability.



NorcanitbesaidthattheShah’sarmspurchasesdivertedresourcesfrom

economicdevelopment,theconventionalcriticismofarmssalestodeveloping

countries.TheShahdidboth.Iran’seconomicgrowthwasnotslowednorwasits

politicalcohesionaffectedbyitsdefensespending.Cutofffrommilitary

supplies—animpossibilityanyway,inlightofthereadyavailabilityofBritishand

Frencharms—Iranmighthavegrownmorevulnerabletooutsidepressures

withoutgainingindomesticstability.Perhapsitishistory’stragiclessonthatonly

twokindsofstructureseemabletosurvivethestressesofmoder nization:either

totalitariangovernmentsimposingtheirwillandnationaldiscipline,orelse

democraticgovernmentswherepluralismandaconstitutionaltraditionwere

alreadyinplacebeforeindustrializationbegan.Regrettably,therecentperiod

findsfewnewexamplesofdemocraticevolutioninthedevelopingworld.For

developingcountries,oneoftheattractionsofMarxism(or,now,reversionto

theocracy)isthatitprovidesarationalefortheexerciseofpowerandarigid

structureofdisciplineandauthorityamidst thedisintegrationoftraditionalforms.



WhateverthefailingsoftheShah,wrestlingperhapswithforcesbeyond

anyman’scontrol,hewasforusthatrarestofleaders,anunconditionalally,and

onewhoseunderstandingoftheworldsituationenhancedourown.Overthe

yearsIhadmanyconversationswithhim.Inhisgraspoftheinternationaltrends

andcurrentshewasamongthemostimpressiveleadersthatImet.Hehadasure

graspoftheimportanceofboththeglobalandtheregionalbalanceofpower.He

understoodthatthedangerstoIranianindependencehadhistoricallycomefrom

theNorthratherthanfromacrossthesea.Withaborderof1,500mileswiththe

SovietUnion,andconfrontedbyincreasinglyradicalgovernmentsinbothIraqand

Afghanistan,heknewthathehadtofindsomeequipoisetothegrowingpressure

onallhisfrontiersexceptthatwithPakistan.Hecouldhavesoughttodeflect

pressuresbybecomingtheSovietUnion’sspokesmanintheareathroughapolicy

technicallynonalignedbutoperationallyanti‐West.Hecouldhavesoughtto

preservehisindependencebymaneuveringbetweentheblocs—muchasIndia 

did—alwayscareful,however,nottoantagonizethesuperpowertotheNorth.He