Mona Baker & Gabriela Saldanha. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (2nd edition)

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(Gile2005:131).Occasionally,aspectssuchasdocumentation,conference

preparation,terminologyandprofessionalETHICSarecovered,butrarelyas

separateunits:theyareclearlyintendedtocomplementinterpretingtechniques.

Theintroductionofconsecutivebeforesimultaneousinterpretingisinformedby

themodelpioneeredbySeleskovitchandLederer(1989/2002)atESIT,Paris,

andhasbeenlargelyacceptedbythevastmajorityofinterpretertraining

institutions.Itisbasedonthepremisethatconsecutiveobligestraineesto

analysecontentanddissociatewordsfrommeaning,ratherthanlapsinginto

wordforwordtranscoding,andthusconstitutesanappropriategroundingfor

themorecognitivelyexactingtechniqueofsimultaneous(Gile2005).

Formanyyearstheterm‘interpreting’wasunderstoodbymanytomean

CONFERENCEINTERPRETING.However,theendofthetwentiethcentury

sawtheriseofCOMMUNITYINTERPRETING(alsoknownas‘public

serviceinterpreting’,andunderstoodheretoincludeCOURT

INTERPRETINGforthesakeofbrevity)asaseparatedisciplineforresearch

andtraining(seealsoDIALOGUEINTERPRETING).Althoughthebasicskills

involvedarethesame,thewayinwhichtheprofessionhasdevelopedandisstill

developing,thecontextsinwhichcommunityinterpreterswork,thedifferent

situationalandcommunicativefactorswhichcomeintoplay,thelanguage

combinationsandmanyotheraspectscombinetomakespecifictraining

desirable(Adamsetal.1995).Inmanycountriesthistypeofinterpretingis

donebyfamilymembersandvolunteers,andprofessionalizationisurgently

requiredforanumberofreasons,includingtheneedtoguaranteetherightsof

migrantsinthehostsocieties(seeASYLUM;MINORITY).Fewcountriesin

theworldhavedevelopedcomprehensivetrainingsystemsfortheircommunity

interpreters,AustraliaandSwedenbeingthemostnotablecases,followedby

Canada,theUKandtheUSAinthecaseofcourtand,morerecently,medical

interpreters.Buteveninthesecountries,trainingapproachesarequitediverse

andareconditionedbyhistoricalandculturalfactors,suchasimmigrationand

languagepolicy,amongstothers.Arecentsurveyofcommunityinterpreter

trainingaroundtheworld(AbrilMarti2006)indicatesthattraininginitiatives

comefromawidevarietyofsources,includinguniversities,publicservices,local

authoritiesandNGOs.Onlyincountrieswithhighlydevelopedstructuresforthe

provisionandaccreditationofcommunityinterpretersistrainingprimarily,

althoughnotexclusively,providedatuniversitylevel(Australia)orunderthe

auspicesofauniversitylevelinstitution(Sweden).Giventheurgencywithwhich

coursesaresetuptorespondtopressingneeds,traditionaltrendsin

translator/interpretereducationarenowchallengedandnovelformulasadopted:

coursesgiveninonecommonlanguage,distancelearning,adulteducation,part

timecourses,itinerantcoursesofferedoncontract,creationofnetworksthat

shareresourcesandprogrammes.Unlikeconferenceinterpretingprogrammes,

coursesoncommunityinterpretingdonotgenerallyfocusoninterpreting

techniquesbutratheronfactualinformationaboutthefunctioningofthepublic

serviceconcernedand/orinterculturalmediationtechniques.

Noninstitutionaltraining

Noninstitutionaltrainingisofferedbytwomajorstakeholdersintranslation:

professionalbodiesandmajoremployers.Mostcountrieshaveatleastone

associationwhichbringstogetherprofessionaltranslatorsand/orinterpreters

withtheaimofjointlydefendingtheirinterests,promotingtheprofessionand

protectingstandards.Thevastmajorityoftheseorganizeprofessional

developmentprogrammesformembers,normallyintheformofshortcourses

designedtodealwithveryspecificaspectsoftranslators’and/orinterpreters’

work:newtechnologies,marketing,tax,copyright,terminologymanagement,

revision,andsoon.Someorganizelongertermprogrammes,suchasthe

AmericanTranslators’Association(ATA)mentoringscheme,wherebysenior

experiencedprofessionalsofferguidancetonovicesoveraperiodoftime,thus

facilitatingtheirentryintotheprofession.ATAalsohasaContinuingEducation

programmethatrequiresmemberstoearnaminimumof20pointseverythree

yearsinordertomaintaintheiraccreditation.

AcademicassociationsandsocietiesinthefieldofTranslationandInterpreting

Studies,suchasEST(EuropeanSocietyofTranslationStudies)andIATIS

(InternationalAssociationforTranslationandInterculturalStudies),tend

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tohavetrainingcommitteeswhichorganizeseminars,compilebibliographical

data(seeforexampletheuniqueBibliographyofPublicationsonTranslator

andInterpreterTrainingcompiledbyKearns(2006a)fortheIATIStraining

committee)andpromoteresearchintothetrainingoftranslatorsingeneral.

ConferenceinterpretertrainingintheWesternworldisstronglyinfluencedby

AIICtrainingrecommendations,whichweredevelopedatsuccessive

conferencesheldundertheauspicesofAIICfrom1969onwards(AIIC1979).

ThishasgivenconferenceinterpretinginEuropemuchcohesionwithregardto

trainingmethods.TheworkoftheAssociation’sTrainingCommitteeincludes

organizingtrainingworkshops(forinterpretersandinterpretertrainers)aswell

aspublishingguidelinesforbestpracticeforinterpretertrainingandaguideto

interpretertraininginstitutionsgradedaccordingtocompliancewiththe

association’scriteria.AlthoughAIICisnominallyaninternationalorganization,

70percentofitsmembersaredomiciledinEurope.PracticesinnonWestern

contextsareoftenlittleknownoutsidethecountrieswheretheyare

implemented,theprimeexamplebeingtheSovietUnionbefore1989,whose

highqualityinterpretingresearchandtrainingactivitydidnotfilterthroughtothe

Westatthetime(Denissenko1989;Chernov1992).

Asformajoremployersintheprivatesector,largertranslationcompaniesrun

shortstaffinductionanddevelopmentcourses.Manyoftheseessentiallycover

technologicalaspectsofprofessionaltranslationandLOCALIZATION.Itis

alsocommonforsuchcompaniestohaveagreementswithuniversitieswhereby

theyofferworkplacementstoadvancedlevelstudentsandthuscomplement

moreacademictraining.Inthepublicsector,internationalorganizationssuchas

theEuropeanUnionhaveaparticularlystronginterestinpromotingtrainingin

specificareas.TheEuropeanCommission’sinterpretertrainingprogramme

beganin1964(VanHoofHafercamp1989)andranuntil1997.Althoughthe

trainingprogrammehasnowbeendiscontinued,theDirectorateGeneralfor

Interpretation(formerlyJointInterpretingandConferenceService(SCIC))is

stillactiveininterpretertrainingthroughanumberofmechanisms:thetemporary

secondmentofDGIinterpretersastrainerstothosetraininginstitutionswhich

requestthem,grantingofsubsidiestouniversitiessothatinformationconcerning

interpretingforEUinstitutionscanbeaddedtotheircourseprogramme,andthe

promotionoftheEuropeanMasters’ProgrammeinConferenceinterpreting,

whichbeganin1997inanattempttocoverthedemandforlanguage

combinationsnecessaryforenlargementtoincludethecountriesofEastern

Europe.Asimilarinitiativefocusingontranslation,theEuropeanMastersin

Translation(EMT),isbeingmooted.Interestingly,therearealsoEuropean

Unionrecommendationsregardingthelevel,lengthandcontentofcourt

interpretertrainingcourses,withtheaimofharmonizingpracticesindifferent

memberstatesandguaranteeingaccesstojusticeformembersoflanguage

minoritiesintheEU(Hertog2003a).Suchharmonizationwouldbringthe

EuropeanmodelclosertotheUSsystem,wheretrainingofcourtinterpreters

hasbeenorganizedfromtheoutsetbytheUniversityofArizona.

Asforpublicserviceinterpreting,themaininitiatorsoftraininginmanycountries

arethepublicinstitutionsthemselves,inanattempttosolvetheirownurgent

communicationproblems,incollaborationwithNGOsandinterpreter

recruitmentagencies(AbrilMarti2006).Communityinterpretinghasthusbeen

describedasaninstitutiondrivenprofession(Ozolins2000).

Theoreticalapproachestoteachingandlearning

Earlytrainingapproachesreflectboththeincipientstateofthedisciplineandthe

teachingtrendsofthe1950sand1960s.Trainers,amixtureofprofessionals

cooptedonparttimecontractsandlinguistswithnoprofessionalexperienceof

translationorinterpreting,workedontheoftenunspokenpremisethattheonly

waytolearnwassimplytotranslateorinterpret,andthentocomparethe

frequentlyunsatisfactoryresultofstudents’effortswiththetrainer’sown

superiorversion.Acombinationofthedevelopmentofthedisciplineandof

teachingandlearningtheoriesattertiarylevelhasgraduallyledtonew

approachesbeingintroduced.Skopostheory(seeFUNCTIONALIST

APPROACHES),descriptivetranslationstudies(seeDESCRIPTIVE